第一节 词类和句子成分
一、词类
能够自由运用的最小语言单位叫词。根据词的形式、意义及其在句中的作用所作的分类叫词类（parts of speech）。
英语的词通常分为十大类，即名词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、动词、介词、连词和感叹词。现分别叙述如下：
（一）名词
名词(noun)是表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。例如：
foreigner外国人 soap 肥皂 Newton牛顿
law 法律 freedom自由 peace 和平
英语名词可分为两大类：
1。普通名词(common noun)是某一类人、事物、某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如：
teacher 教师 market市场 rice 大米
magazine杂志 sound 声音 production生产
2。专有名词(proper noun)是特定的某人、地方或机构的名称。专有名词的第一个字母必须
大写。例如：
Hemingway海明威 Russia 俄罗斯
New York 纽约 United Nations联合国
名词又可分为可数名词(countable noun)与不可数名词(uncountable noun)两种。可数名词有单、复数之分。绝大多数名词的复数形式的构成是在单数名词的后面加-s或-es。例如：
shop→shops商店 bus→buses 公共汽车 library→libraries图书馆
toy→toys 玩具 leaf→leaves树叶
英语中有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的。例如：
man→men男人 tooth→teeth牙齿 datum→data数据
有关名词复数形式构成的具体规则，请参阅有关的英语语法书。
（二）冠词
冠词(article)放在名词之前，帮助说明该名词所指的对象。冠词分为不定冠词(indefinite article)和定冠词(definite article)两种。
不定冠词为a/an，用在单数名词之前，表示某一类人或事物的“一个”。a用在以辅音开头的名词之前，an用在以元音开头的名词之前。例如：
a hotel 一家旅馆 a chance 一次机会
a double room一个双人间 a useful book 一本有用的书
an exhibition一次展览 an honest man一个诚实的人
冠词只有一个，既the，表示某一类人或事物中特定的一个或一些。可用于单数或复数名词前，也可用于不可数名词前。例如：
the TV programs 那些电视节目 the house那座房子
the Olympic Games奥运会
（三）代词
代词(pronoun)是用来指代人或事物的词。代词包括：
1。 人称代词，如：I, you, they, it等；
2。 物主代词，如：my, his, their, our, mine, hers等；
3。 反身代词，如：myself, yourself, itself, ourselves, oneself等；
4。 相互代词，如：each other, one another等；
5。 指示代词，如：this, that, these, those, such, same等；
6。 疑问代词，如：who, whom, whose, which, what等；
7。 关系代词，如：who, whom, whose, which, that等；
8。 不定代词，如：some, any, no, all, one, every, many, a little, someone, anything等；
（四）数词
数词(numeral)是表示“数量”和“顺序”的词。前者称为基数词，例如：one(一)，twenty
(二十)，thirty-five(三十五)，one hundred and ninety-five(一百九十五)等；后者称为序数词，例如：first(第一)，twentieth(第二十)，fifty-first(第五十一等。
（五）形容词
形容词(adjective)是用来修饰名词，表示名词属性的词。例如：yellow(黄色的)，wonderful(惊人的)，strong(强大的)。形容词一般放在它所修饰的名词之前，例如：busy streets(繁华的街道)，public relations(公共关系)，young men(年轻人)等。
形容词的比较等级可分为三种，既原级、比较级和最高级。原级，既未变化的形容词原形，例如：great, big, difficult等；比较级，既形容词+后缀-er或more+形容词，例如：greater, bigger, more difficult等；最高级，既形容词+后缀-est或most+形容词，例如：greatest, biggest, most difficult等。
（六）副词
副词可分为四种，包括：
1。普通副词，例如：together(一起)，well(好)，carefully(仔细地)等；
2。疑问副词，例如：when(何时)，where(何地)，how(如何)，why(为什么)等；
3。连接副词，例如：therefor(因此)，then(然后)，however(然而)，otherwise(否则)等；
4。关系副词，例如：where, when, why等。
副词的比较等级的构成和形容词一样。
（七）动词
动词(verb)是表示动作或状态的词，例如：sign(签字)，support(支持)，have(有)，exist(存在)等。
动词根据起意义和作用可分为实义动词、系动词、情态动词和助动词。
实义动词有完全的词义，并能独立作谓语，例如：explain(解释)，stay(停留)，have(有)等。系动词作谓语时，后面需接表语。常见英语系动词有：be(是)，seem(似乎)，look(看起来)，become(变成)，appear(显得)，get(变得)，feel(感到)，turn(变成)，remain(仍然是)等。
情态动词表示能力、义务、必要、猜测等说话人的语气和情感。情态动词只能和原行动词一起构成谓语动词。英语情态动词主要有can(能够)，may(可以，也许)，must(必须)及其过去形式could, might等。
助动词常和主要动词一起构成各种时态、语态、语气等动词形式，以及用于否定和疑问等结构中。英语助动词主要有shall, will, have, be, should, would, do等。
实义动词还可根据是否需要宾语分为及物动词和不及物动词。
及物动词(transitive verb)后面要跟宾语，意义才完整。例如：
You muxt consider the matter carefully.
你一定要仔细考虑这件事。（the matter是及物动词consider的宾语）
Have you received the letter?
你受到了那封信吗？（the letter是及物动词receive的宾语）
不及物动词(intransitive verb)本身意义完整，后面不需跟宾语，例如：
The old man walked very slowly.
这老人走的很慢。（walked是不及物动词）
He didn't sleep well last night.
他昨晚睡的不好。（sleep是不及物动词）
动词有四中基本形式，即动词原形、过去式、过去分词和现在分词。例如：
原形 过去式 过去分词 现在分词
live lived lived living
build built built building
have had had having
动词过去式和过去分词的构成有规则和不规则两种。规则动词(regular verb)的过去式和过去分词，在原形动词后面加词尾-ed或-d构成。不规则动词(irregular verb)的过去式和过去分词的形式是不规则的，如eat, ate, eaten。这些动词数量虽不多，但都是比较常用的，必须熟记。
现在分词在动词原形后面加-ing构成。关于动词原形加-ed和-ing的方法和读音以及不规则动词的变化，请参阅相关词典或语法书。
（八）介词
介词(preposition)又叫前置词，放在名词、代词或相当于名词的词前面，表示它后面的词与句子中其它成分之间的关系。
介词在句中一般不重读，也不能单独作句子成分。
介词根据其构成，可分为简单介词，如：in, at, for, since等；复合介词，如：into(进入), as for(至于), out of(出自)；二重介词，如：until after(直至...之后), from among(从...当中)；短语介词，如：according to(根据), because of(因为), in front of(在...之前), in the event of(如果)；分词介词，如：regarding(关于), considering(考虑到), including(包括)。
介词后面的名词或代词叫做介词宾语。介词和介词宾语合称为介词短语(prepositional phrase)。
（九）连词
连词(conjunction)是连接词、短语、从句或句子的词。连词是虚词，在句中一般不重读，也不能在句中单独作句子成分。
根据连词本身的含义及其所连接的成分的性质，可分为并列连词和从属连词。
并列连词是连接并列关系的词、短语、从句或句子的连词，例如：and(和), or(或者、否则), but(但是), for(因为), not only...but also(不仅...而且), neither...nor(即不...也不)。从属连词是连接主从复合句的主句和从句的连词，例如：that, if(如果), whether(是否), when(当...时候), although(虽然), because(因为), so that(结果)。
从连词本身的结构形式看，又可分为：简单连词，如：but, because, if；关联连词，如：not only...but also, as...as(和...一样)；分词连词，如：supposing(假如), provided(倘若)；短语连词，如：as if(好象), as soon as(一旦...就), in order that(以便)。
（十）感叹词
感叹词(interjection)是表示喜怒哀乐等感情的词，例如：oh, well, why, hello等。
上述十大词类中，名词、代词、形容词、副词、动词、数词等都有实义，故称为实词(notioal word)；而介词、冠词、连词、感叹词等没有实义，故称为虚词(form word)。
不少词可以属于几个词类，例如：smoke(名词) (烟尘)，(动词) (吸烟)；own(形容词) (自己的)，(动词) (拥有)；just(副词) (刚才)，(形容词) (正义的)；key(名词) (钥匙)，(形容词) (主要的)，等。
二、句子成分
由不同词类的单词，按照一定的语法规则组合在一起，能表达一个完整意思的语言单位叫做句子。一个句子由各个功能不同的部分构成，这些部分叫做句子成分(members of the sentence)。英语的句子成分有八种：主语、谓语动词、表语、宾语、定语、状语、主语补足语和宾语补足语。现分述如下：
（一）主语
主语(subject)是句子所要说明的人或事物，是句子的主体。主语的位置通常在句首，一般不省略。可以担当主语的有名词、代词、数词、动词不定式、动名词和主语从句。例如：
Walls have ears.
隔墙有耳。（名词做主语）
He will take you to the hospital.
他会带你去医院。（代词做主语）
Three plus four equals seven.
三加四等于七。（数词做主语）
To see is to believe.
眼见为实。（动词不定式做主语）
Smoking is not allowed in public places.
公共场所不允许吸烟。（动名词做主语）
Whether or not they will come depends on the weather.
他们来不来取决与天气。（从句做主语）
（二）谓语动词
谓语动词(predicate verb)是说明主语的动作或状态的句子成分。谓语动词的位置一般在主语之后。谓语动词由实义动词或系动词担任。助动词或情态动词加其他动词的适当形式也构成谓语动词。例如：
Action speaks louder than words.
百说不如一干。
The chance may never come again.
这样的机会恐怕不会再来。
Tom was very sick at heart.
汤姆心里非常难过。
Mary has been working at the dress shop since 1994.
自1994年以来，玛丽一直在那家服装店工作。
（三）表语
表语（predicative）是用来说明主语的身份、特征和状态的，它的位置在系动词之后。可作表语的有名词、代词、形容词与分词、数词、动词不定式、介词短语、副词以及表语从句等。例如：
My father is a professor.
我父亲是一位教授。（名词作表语）
Who's that? It's me.
是谁呀？是我。（代词作表语）
Everything here is dear to her.
这里的一切她都感到亲切。（形容词作表语）
The match became very exciting.
比赛变得很紧张。（分词作表语）
The story of my life may be of help to others.
我的生活经历对别人可能有帮助。（介词短语作表语）
Three times five is fifteen.
三乘五等于十五。（数词作表语）
His plan is to seek work in the city.
他的计划是在城里找工作。（动词不等式作表语）
My first idea was that you should hide your feelings.
我最初的想法是你应当掩饰你的感情。（从句作表语）
（四）宾语
宾语（object）表示动作的对象，是动作的承受者。宾语一般放在及物动词之后。英语介词后也会跟宾语。可作宾语的有名词、数词、代词、动名词等。不定式也可作及物动词的宾语。例如：
she covered her face with her hands.
她用双手蒙住脸。（名词短语作宾语）
We haven't seen her for a long time.
我们好长时间没看到她了。（代词作宾语）
Do you mind opening the window?
打开窗户你介意吗？（动名词作宾语）
Give me four please.
请给我四个。（数词作宾语）
He wants to dream a nice dream.
他想做一个好梦。（动词不定式短语作宾语）
We need to know what others are doing.
我们需要了解其他人都在干什么。（从句作宾语）
I lived in Japan in 1986.
我1986 年住在日本。（名词和数词作介词的宾语）
（五）定语
定语（attribute）是修饰名词或代词的词、短语或句子。单词作定语时通常放在它所修饰的名词之前；短语和从句作定语时则放在它所修饰的名词之后。作定语的有名词、形容词、数词、分词及其短语、不等式及其短语、介词短语以及定语从句等。例如：
They are woman workers.
她们是女工。（名词作定语）
Tom's father didn't write home until yesterday.
汤姆的父亲直到昨天才给家里写信。（所有格名词作定语）
Equal pay for equal work should be introduced.
应当实行同工同酬。（形容词作定语）
The play has three acts.
这出戏有三幕。（数词作定语）
This is her first trip to Europe.
这是她首次欧洲之行。（代词、数词和介词短语作定语）
China is a developing country.
中国是一个发展中国家。（分词作定语）
You haven't kept your promise to write us often.
你没有遵守给我们经常写信的诺言。（动词不定式短语作定语）
My cat has a good nose for milk.
我的猫对牛奶嗅觉灵敏。（介词短语作定语）
Those who want to go to Tibet are to sign their names here.
想去西藏的人须在此签名。（从句作定语）
（六）状语
状语（adverbial）是修饰动词、形容词、副词等的句子成分。状语表示地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、程度、方式、伴随情况等。作状语的有副词、名词、介词短语、分词及其短语、动词不定式及其短语、状语从句等。例如：
These products are selling quickly.
这些产品现在十分畅销。（副词作状语）
He is knee deep in snow.
他踩在齐膝深的雪里。（名词作状语）
The best fish swim near the bottom.
好鱼居水底。（有价值的东西不能轻易得到。）（介词短语作状语）
She sat there doing nothing.
她坐在那里无所事事。（分词短语作状语）
We'll send a car over to fetch you.
我们将派一辆车去接你。（动词不定式短语作状语）
She was slow to make up her mind.
她迟迟不能下决心。（动词不定式短语作状语）
Strike while the iron is hot.
趁热打铁。（从句作状语）
There is no such a word in English so far as I know.
据我所知，英语里没有这样一个词。（从句作状语）
（七）宾语补足语和主语补足语
英语有些及物动词，除了要有宾语之外，还要加上宾语补足语（object complement），才能使句子的意义完整。宾语和宾语补足语一起构成复合宾语。如果上述结构变成被动语态，原宾语成为主语，原宾语补足语相应地变为主语补足语（subject complement）。可以担当补足语的有名词、形容词、介词短语、动词不定式、分词等。例如：
They elected me captain of the team.
他们选我当队长。（名词短语作宾语补足语）
He made me ashamed of myself.
他使我感到惭愧。（形容词短语作宾语补足语）
We found everything there in good order.
我们发现那里的一切井井有条。（介词短语作宾语补足语）
I should advise you not to miss the chance.
我劝你不要错过机会。（不定式短语作宾语补足语）
I could feel my heart beating fast.
我可以感觉出自己的心跳得很快。（分词短语作宾语补足语）
Some goods are left unsold.
有些货物剩下未出售。（分词做主语补足语）
She was elected director of public relations.
她被选为公关部主任。（名词短语做主语补足语）
词类与句子成分既有区别又有联系。词类是孤立的单词的分类；而句子成分则指单词、词组、短语或从句在句中的作用。句子的各种成分总是由属于一定词类的单词（或词组、短语、从句）来担当的。因此在词类和句子成分之间存在着某种对应关系。现将这种对应关系列表如下：
主语 宾语 表语 定语 状语 宾(主)语补足语
名 词 √ √ √ √ √ √
代 词 √ √ √ √ √
形容词 √ √ √
副 词 √ √
数 词 √ √ √ √ √
不定式 √ √ √ √ √ √
分 词 √ √ √ √
动名词 √ √ √ √
介词短语 √ √ √ √
动词中的实义动词和系动词可以担当谓语。动词不定式、分词和动名词形式不能独立担当谓语。介词是虚词的一种，不能独立担当句子成分，但介词加上其后的宾语所构成的介词短语，可在句中担当多种成分。
第二节 基本句型
句子的主要成分是主语和谓语。构成主语的有名词或相当于名词作用的其他词、词组或从句。谓语的构成比较复杂，有时可以由谓语动词独立担当谓语，有时谓语动词需带宾语或表语，还有的谓语动词可带两个宾语或带宾语后再加补足语等。谓语动词类别的不同决定着谓语结构的不同，而不同的谓语结构又决定着不同的句型。
所谓基本句型（basic sentence pattern）就是几种基本的谓语结构的格局；千变万化的句型都是由它们演变而来的。英语的基本句型有五种，即：
1。主—系—表
2。主—动
3。主—动—宾
4。主—动—宾—宾
5。主—动—宾—宾补
现分述如下：
一、主—系—表（SVC）
此句型结构的谓语动词是由系动词担任，后接表语，也可称作补语。常用的系动词除be, become, look, seem, appear, get, feel外，还有以下一些：
grow（变得）， turn（变成）， remain（仍然是），fall（变得）， hold（保持），
keep（保持）， stand（保持）， stay（保持）， smell（闻起来），sound（听起来），
taste（尝起来）等。例如：
The motor is out of order.
这台电机出了毛病。
Her mother has fallen ill.
她母亲生病了。
The weather is getting quite warm.
天气变得相当暖和。
The roses smell sweet.
这些玫瑰气味很香。
Silk feels soft and smooth.
丝绸摸上去又软又滑。
The plan sounds perfect.
这个计划听起来完美无缺。
二、主—动（SV）
此句型的谓语动词是不及物动词，常带有状语。例如：
The fruit store has closed.
这家水果店关门了。
They have been singing and dancing for two hours.
他们又唱又跳已经两个小时了。
The plane will take off soon.
飞机很快就要起飞。
They will fly to London.
他们将飞往伦敦。
三、主—动—宾（SVO）
此句型的谓语动词是及物动词，后面需跟宾语。例如：
The machine is drilling a hole.
这台机器正在钻孔。
The teacher corrected her poor pronunciation more than once.
老师不止一次的改正她的错误发音。
Storytelling has many strengths in improving oral English skills.
讲故事对提高英语口语能力很有作用。
四、主—动—宾—宾（SVOO）
此句型中的谓语动词是带双宾语的及物动词。两个宾语中前一个为间接宾语，后一个为直接宾语。这类谓语动词除常见的give, bring, tell, send, leave, pass, read, write, take, show, teach, get等以外，还有以下一些：
award （授予）， lend（借）， rent （租）， buy（买），
pay （支付）， hand（传递）， recommend（推荐），save（节省）等。例如：
The new way saved us much time.
这个新方法省了我们不少时间。
Could you do me a favor please?
你能帮帮我的忙吗？
I paid the repairman fifty dollars.
我给了修理工50元。
He ordered himself a soft drink.
他给自己要了一瓶软饮料。
Mr. Smith lent me his car.
史密斯先生把他的车借给了我。
I found him a new textbook.
我给他找了本新教科书。
Can you spare me a few minutes of your valuable time?
我能占用你几分钟宝贵的时间吗？
The president awarded him the first prize.
校长授予他一等奖。
五、主—动—宾—补（SVOC）
此句型的谓语动词是可以带复合宾语的及物动词，也就是说，这些动词除了有一个直接宾语外，还要加上宾语补足语，句子的意义才能完整。宾语补足语可由名词、形容词、动词不定式、分词或介词短语充当。在宾语加宾语补足语构成的复合宾语中，宾语与它的补足语之间存在着逻辑上（即意义上）的主谓关系。这样的及物动词有相当数量，例如：
appoint （任命）， believe（相信）， call（称）， catch （发现），
elect （选举）， feel （感到）， find（发现）， like （希望），
hear （听到）， keep （保持）， leave（听任），discover（发现），
make （使）， need （需要）， prefer（宁愿），prove （证明），
see （看见）， warn （警告）等。例如：
They appointed Mr. White Minister of Foreign Affairs.
他们任命怀特先生为外交部长。
The board of directors elected Charles president of the university.
董事会选举查尔斯为这所大学的校长。
I found her rather difficult to work with.
我发现很难与她共事。
She likes her guests to feel at home.
她希望客人不要拘束。
I warned him not to be late.
我曾警告他不要迟到。
My father saw him steal the money.
我父亲看见他偷钱。
I prefer you to stay with us.
我跟更愿意你留下来和我们一起。
You may leave the child in my care.
你可以把孩子交给我照管。
The police discovered the check hidden under a pile of papers.
The woman caught her husband reading her diary.
那位妇女发现她丈夫偷看她的日记。
The shop assistant kept the customer waiting a very long time.
那个售货员让顾客等了很长时间。
第三节 构词法
英语词的构成有一定的规律，这种规律称为构词法。掌握构词法知识对我们更好地理解词义、认识新词和扩大词汇量有重要意义。
构词法主要有三种：派生法、合成法和转换法。
一、派生法
在一个词的词根（root）的前面或后面加上某个词缀来产生新词，这种构词法称为派生法（derivation）。加在前面的词缀叫前缀（prefix），加在后面的词缀叫后缀（suffix）。
（一）后缀：许多名词、形容词、副词和动词是由词根加后缀构成的。
1.构成名词的常用后缀有：
(1)-er,-or,-ist,-ee,-ese,-ant等用于构成表示人或物的名称。例如：
thinker（思想家），guesser（猜想者），translator（翻译者），conductor（导体）；
physicist（物理学家），dentist （牙科医生）；
employee（雇员）， trainee （受训人员）；
physician（内科医生），Italian （意大利人）；
Japanese（日本人）； assistant（助手）等。
(2) -ance, -ence, -(a)tion, -sion, -ics, -ing, -ity, -ment, -ness, -th, -ty,-ure,-ship等用于构成表示行为、性质、状态等抽象名词。例如：
acceptance（接受）， assistance （帮助）； dependence（依靠），confidence（信心）；
repetition （重复）， preparation（准备）； discussion（讨论）， division （分开）；
physics （物理学），fabrics （纺织品）； building （建筑物），wedding （婚礼）；
reality （现实）， ability （能力）； settlement（解决）， argument （争论）；
greatness （伟大）， hardness （硬度）； warmth （温暖）， length （长度）；
safety （安全）， penalty （惩罚）； failure （失败）， pressure （压力）；
friendship（友谊）， leadership（领导）等。
2. 构成形容词的常用后缀有：-able, -ible, -al, -ful, -less, -ish, -ive, -ous, -an, -ic, -ly, -ant, -ent,
-ary, -en等。例如：
available（可获得的），suitable（适合的）； responsible（负责的），permissible（允许的），
natural（天然的），national（国家的）； powerful（强大的），faithful（忠诚的）；
fearless（无畏的），useless（无用的）； selfish（自私的），childish（幼稚的）；
collective（集体的），decisive（决定性的）；famous（著名的），continous（连续不断的）；
American（美国的），European（欧洲的）；
historic（有历史意义的），scientific（科学的）；
friendly（友好的），lively（活泼的）； thirsty（口渴的），noisy（喧闹的）；
significant（重大的），pleasant（令人愉快的）；
dependent（依赖的），consistent（一贯的 ）；
secondary（次要的），imaginary（想象中的）；
golden（金色的），wooden（木制的）等。
3. 构成副词的常用后缀有：-ly, -ward, -wise等。例如：
terribly（可怕的），regularly（定期的）； homeward（向家去地），eastward（向东方地）；
otherwise（否则），likewise（同样地）等。
4. 构成动词的常用后缀的有：-ise/ize, -en, -ify等。例如：
realize（实现），modernize（使现代化）； widen（加宽），strengthen（加强）；
verify（证实），modify（修饰）等。
（二）前缀：词根加前缀多数不改变词性，只引起词义的变化。
1. 表示相反意义的前缀有：un-, dis-, in-, im-, ir-, il-, de-等。例如：
unhappy（不高兴），uncomfortable（不舒服）；
unload（卸货），uncover（揭露）；
dislike（不喜欢），disagree（不同意）；
informal（非正式的），inaccurate（不准确的）；
irregular（不规则的），irresponsible（不负责任的）；
illegal（不合法的），illogical（不合理的）；
decode（解码），devalue（降低价值）等。
2. 表示其他意思的前缀有：re-（重新），mis-（错误的），anti-（反、防），ex-（前），pre-
（预先），post-（后的），fore-（先的），self-（自我的、自动的），super-（超级、上层），
sub-（下面的），inter-（之间的、互相），trans-（跨越、移），ultra-（外、极），semi-
（半），vice-（副），uni-（单），bi-（双），multi-（多），auto-（自）等。例如：
reform（改革）； misunderstand（误解）；mistrust（不信任）；
anti-tank（反坦克的）；anti-social（危害社会的）；
ex-president（前总统）； preheat（预热），prepare（预备）；
post-war（战后的），postgraduate（研究生）；
forecast（预报），foresee（预见）； self-control（自我控制），self-important（自大的）；
supermarket（超市），superman（超人）； subdivide（再分），subway（地下铁道）；
interact（相互作用），interconnection（相互连接）；
transport（运输），translate（翻译）； ultraviolet（紫外线的），ultrasonic（超声的）；
semi-final（半决赛），semiconductor（半导体）；
vice-premier（副总理），vice-chairman（副主席）；
uniform（制服），unilateral（单方面的）； bicycle（自行车），bimonthly（双月的）；
multinational（多国的），multistage（多级）； automation（自动化），automobile（汽
车）等。
二、合成法
由两个或两个以上的词合成一个新词，这种构词法称为合成法（compounding）。合成词之间有的要用连字符连接，有的直接连接在一起。
（一）合成名词，例如：
hardware（硬件）， network（网络）， output（产量）， typewriter（打字机），
weekend（周末）， by-product（副产品），well-being（福利）等。
（二）合成形容词，例如：
duty-free（免税）， far-reaching（深远的），air-tight（密封的） large-scale（大规模的），
first-rate（第一流的），face to face（面对面的），all-round（全面的），state-owned（国
有的 ）等。
（三）合成动词，例如：
overthrow（推翻）， undergo（经历）， heat-treat（热加工）， white-wash（粉刷），
uphold（支持）， counteroffer（还价）等。
三、转换法
在词行不变的情况下，一个单词由一种词性转换成另一种词性，称为转换（conversion）。
转换后的词义与转换前的词义通常有密切的联系，但有时差异也很大。例如：
dream v. 做梦 → n. 梦
look v. 看 → n. 相貌
back n. 后背 → v. 支持
air n 空气 → v. 通风
better a. 较好 → v. 改善
有些双音节的词转换后，重音要发生变化。通常名词重音在前，动词重音在后，有时读音也有不同。希望大家注意这一点。
第四节 句子的用途分类
英语句子按其用途可分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。现分述如下：
一、陈述句
用于叙述或说明一件事实的句子叫陈述句（declarative sentence）。陈述句可以是肯定句，也可以是否定句。例如：
My advice to you is to speak the truth.
我建议你说真话。
Your answer is not quite correct.
你的回答不太正确。
They had no way to communicate with Paul.
他们无法与保罗联系。
She is waiting for another chance.
她正等待着另一次机会。
二、疑问句
用来提出问题的句子叫疑问句（interrogative sentence）。疑问句有四类：一般疑问句、特殊疑问句、选择疑问句和反意疑问句。
1。一般疑问句
用Yes或No来回答的疑问句，叫做一般疑问句（general question）。句中的助动词或情态动词要放在主语之前，形成倒装词序。在个别情况下，如表示猜测、怀疑、惊讶时，可用自然词序。例如：
Do you find it difficult to learn a new language?
你认为学一种新的语言很难吗？
Can you guess who will disagree with this statement?
你能不能猜出谁会不同意这种说法？
Will she accept this invitation?
她会接受邀请吗？
Are you interested in the classified ads?
你对分类广告赶兴趣吗？
You think the boy is impossible?
你认为这孩子很让人讨厌吗？
2。特殊疑问句
就句中某一部分提出疑问的问句，叫做特殊疑问句（special question）。引出特殊疑问句的常用疑问词有：who（谁），whom（谁），whose（谁的），which（哪个，哪些），what（什么），where（什么地方），when（什么时候），why（为什么），how（如何）等。例如：
Who are responsible for the company's advertising?
谁负责公司的广告？
What does macaroni look like?
通心粉是什么样子？
When did they get married?
他们什么时候结婚？
Which do you prefer, wine or beer?
葡萄酒和啤酒，你喜欢喝哪种？
How many languages did he master?
他掌握了多少中语言？
Why does the moon look much bigger than any other star except the sun?
为什么月亮看上去比除太阳以外的其他任何星星都要大？
第二部分：考研英语基础语法
扎实的语法功底对于考研解题是很重要的。据总结，最令大多数考研学生头疼的基础语法现象主要有以下几项：英语的基本句式、形容词性（定语）从句、名词性从句（主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句和同位语从句）、副词性（状语）从句、As 的用法。下面将对以上语法点详解，并通过练习进一步强化对它们的掌握。
一、英语的基本句式
（一）英语句子的主要成分
英语句子主要由主语，谓语，宾语（直接宾语和间接宾语），定语，状语，补语（主语补语和宾语补语），表语（主语补语的一种），同位语，感叹语，插入语等构成。
（二）英语的五大句式
一)主 + 系 + 表语
例如：
You are a baby.
系动词：
联系动词（Link Verb）是一种表示谓语关系的动词，作为系动词，它本身有词义，但不能单独用作谓语，后边必须跟表语，构成系表结构说明主语的状况、性质、特征等情况。系动词可以是be动词，也可以是某些实义动词。
例如：
The dog looks dangerous.
五大类常见系动词：
1）be动词--用来表示主语状态。
例如：
He is a teacher.
2）“持续类”--用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度。
这类系动词主要有：
例如：
I am sorry to have kept you waiting.
This matter rests a mystery.
3）“表象类”--用来表示"看起来像"这一概念
这类系动词主要有：
例如：
He seems （to be） very sad.
4）“感官类”--用来表示“感觉”“触觉”等
这类系动词主要有：
例1：
It sounds reasonable.
例2：
-Do you like this sweater?
-Yes, it __________ very soft.
A. is feeling
B. felt
C. feels
D. is felt
5）“变化类”--这些系动词表示主语变成什么样
这类系动词主要有：
例如：
It worried her a bit that her hair was turning gray.
The rumor proved false.
His plan turned out a success.
二) 主语+不及物动词+（状语）
例如：
He changed a lot.
You cried loudly.
注意：该句型可接状语。
当一句话中存在多个状语时，状语的排列顺序一般为：地点/方式/目的/原因/时间/（never等频度副词置于句中，实义动词前，系动词、情态动词等助动词后）。
例如：
President Nixon came to China by a special plane for an official visit at the invitation of China’s government in 1972 after there had been about 40 years of separation between the two governments.
三) 主语+谓语（及物动词）+宾语
例如：
I love you
注意：当宾语为动词意义时，用to do形式或者doing形式。英语中只有少部分动词接doing形式，其余均接to do形式；还有一些既可接to do形式又可接doing形式，没有什么区别；但有些接to do形式或doing形式意义有区别，应区别记忆。
1）下列动词常以doing形式作宾语：
2）下列动词可接to do形式或doing形式作宾语：
3）下列动词可接to do形式或doing形式作宾语,但意义不同：
四) 主+及物动词+间接宾语+直接宾语
例如：
I will give you a book. =I will give a book to you.
My mother made me a new dress.
可以带双宾语的动词主要有：
买卖关系： buy, pay, cost
给予关系： give, grant ,pass, offer, bring, send
借还关系： lend, return, owe
说服关系： tell, persuade
命名选举关系：name, call, elect, select
其他关系：wish, envy, make
注意：直接宾语与间接宾语对调时，应加适当的介词：
1） 等 + to
2） 等 + for
3）+ of
4）
+on
五) 主语+ 谓语 + 宾语 + 宾补(补充说明宾语状态)
例如：I will make you happy
注意：
1）以名词为宾语补足语的动词主要有：
若补语是指“一个人可以担任的职位”时，便应省略冠词。
例如：
比较They elected him Present.
He made her a servant.
2）以不定式为宾语补足语，如果谓语动是感官动词或使役动词，to应省略；但变被动语态时应补上 to。
例如：I often see him help others.
3）现在分词或过去分词也可为宾语补足语：
例如：I found the man stealing the money.
He can’t make himself understood.
I heard my name called.
二、英语的三大类从句
从句是相对于主句而言的，即它是从属于某一个主句，而不能单独作一个句子。在英语中，主要有三大类从句，即形容词性从句（定语从句）、名词性从句（包括主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句，同位语从句）、副词性从句（即状语从句,包括时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、方式、比较等）。
（一）定语从句
说到定语从句，大家都不感到陌生，它是考研题中经常见到的一类从句。例如2006年考研真题的完形填空题中：
Even when homeless individuals manage to find a shelter that will give them three meals a day and a place to sleep at night, a good number still spend the bulk of each day wandering the street.
下面我们来仔细剖析一下这类从句及其用法。
一）有关定语从句的基本概念
1. 定语从句（Attributive Clause）是一个具有完整的主谓结构，并在主句中担任定语的从句，它通常置于所修饰的名词或代词之后。
2. 先行词（Antecedent）是指被定语从句所修饰的名词或代词，它通常位于定语从句之前。例如：
Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air.
Anyone who sees the lion is asked to telephone the zoo and the police.
注：
1. 先行词并不一定都是“词”，它除了由名词或代词充当外，还可以由下列成分充当：
1）一个短语
例如：
Many life’s problems which were solved by asking family members, friends or colleague are beyond the capability of the extended family to resolve. (1995)
2）一个分句
例如：
The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse languages could be. (2004)
3）一个完整的句子
例如：
I was late for school this morning, which made my teacher very angry.
2. 如何确定先行词
要想正确找到先行词，首先要理解定语从句的意思，然后根据从句的意思来找在其之前并能与其构成逻辑语义联系的先行词。
例如：
For workers it can mean an end to the security, benefits and sense of ____that came from being a loyal employee. (1997)
A. excitement
B. conviction
C. confidence
D. importance
3. 关系词（relative word）是指引导定语从句的连词。
关系词有关系代词who, whom, whose, which和that等；关系副词有when, where, why等。关系词不仅在主句和分句间起连接作用，而且还代表先行词在定语从句中担任一定的句子成分；关系代词作主语、宾语、定语、表语等，关系副词作状语。关系代词或关系副词的选用，取决于先行词的意义。先行词表人，则用who或that；表物则用which或that；表时间则用when；表地方则用where；表原因则用why（先行词只可用reason）。关系代词的格则取决于它在从句中的地位。
例如：
This is the book that my father bought me yesterday.
The time when he arrives is not known.
The fire also destroyed cars which belonged to people who worked in the building.
二）定语从句的种类及关系词的用法：
1. 限制性定语从句（restrictive attributive clause）：
在限制性定语从句中，从句对先行词起限制作用，二者关系密切。如果没有从句，将会影响全句的意义，因此从句和先行词之间通常不用逗号分开。
1)先行词表人时，关系词由关系代词who，whom，whose，that担任：
（1）在从句中作主语用who或that（以who居多）
例如：
He had some friends who /that worked in the office there.
（2）作宾语用whom（需置于从句之首）, who，that或省略
例如：
The boy (whom/who/that) we saw yesterday was John’s brother.
（3）作定语用whose（需置于从句之首，有时可用of which替换）
例如：
The couple whose photo I took at the party was very pleased with it.
He has a book whose cover (=the cover of which) is very beautiful.
注：
关系代词作介词宾语时可用who/that或省略，但介词须置于从句之后。
例如:
This is the girl (who/that) I told you of the other day.
书面语中多用whom，但介词可置于从句之前或之后。
例如：
The teacher from whom I learnt most /whom I learnt most from was Mrs. Zhu.
如介词与动词已组成短语动词，一般则须置于从句之后（与动词不分开）。
例如：
The machine which I have looked after for twenty years, is still working well.
Whose也可置于介词之后作定语，介词须置于从句之前。
例如：
The boss in whose department Mr. King worked had heard about the accident.
2)先行词表物时，关系词由关系代词which或that担任，在从句中作主语或宾语（常省略）。例如：
He had many merchant ships which traded with other countries.
There are some jobs (that) men can’t do very well.
注：当关系代词that和which在从句中作介词宾语时，用法有些不同。
which作介词宾语时，介词即可置于从句之首（which紧跟其后），也可置于从句之末（which置于从句之首），单一置于句首较为正式。
例如：
One subject to which country music often returns is “the good old days”.
如介词与动词已组成短语动词，一般则须置于从句之后（与动词不分开）。
例如：
Is this the watch which he was looking for? l That作介词宾语时，介词只可置于从句之末。
例如: If it is a book on a subject that you are interested in, you will want to “chew and digest it”.
总之，只要介词置于从句之末，用which/that或省略均可。
例如： That is the exhibition (which/that) you should go to.
3)先行词表时间时，关系词由关系副词when担任，在从句中作时间状语。
例如： This was at a time when there was no radio, TV or cinema.
4)先行词表地方时，关系词由关系副词where担任，在从句中作地点状语。
例如： Today many of them live in special areas where they can continue their way of life.
5)先行词表原因时（只有reason一词），关系词由关系副词why担任，在从句中作原因状语，先行词在句中常省略。
例如： I do not know (the reason) why they quarreled.
注： l 关系副词when和where有时可用“介词＋which”代替，why可用for which代替。
例如： There are occasions when one must yield. Beijing is the place where I was born. Is this the reason why he refused our offer?
l 先行词虽然是时间或地点，但若在定语从句中作主语或宾语时，要用关系代词。
例如： 比较： The factory where his father worked has closed. The factory which/that was built in 1978 has closed.
比较： I’ll never forget the days when we lived together. I’ll never forget the days (that) we spent in Australia.
比较： The reason (why) she was ill was that she had eaten bad meat. The reason (that) he gave for his absence was obviously fabricated.
2. 非限制性定语从句（nonrestrictive attributive clause）： 在非限制性定语从句中，从句与先行词关系比较松散，用逗号隔开。
1)先行词表人时，关系词由关系代词who，whom，whose担任（that不能担任非限制性定语从句的关系词）：
（1）在从句中作主语用who 例如： Martin Luther King, Jr., who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, was an important political leader in the USA.
（2）作宾语用whom（需置于从句之首）, who
例如： That man, whom/who I met yesterday, is a film director.
（3）作定语用whose（需置于从句之首）
例如： My brother, whose arms had been broken by the police, was not taken to the hospital.
注： l 关系代词作介词宾语时，可用whom，介词须置于从句之首。
例如： These papers belong to Bernard, with whom I am sharing a room. l whom常作of属格的宾语。 例如： About 2,000 people, many of whom were Europeans, worked on the project. l whose也可置于介词之后作of属格宾语中的定语。 例如： I decided to write about Chaplin, one of whose films I had seen several years before.
2)先行词表物时，关系词由关系代词which担任（that不能担任非限制性定语从句的关系词），在从句中作主语或宾语。
例如： The dam, which is the biggest in the world, is 3,830 meters long. 注： 关系代词which在从句中可用作介词宾语，介词可置于从句之首或从句之末；并常用作of属格的宾语。
例如： It was like stepping into a secret art museum, in which we were the only visitors. North Island is famous for an area of hot springs, some of which throw hot water high into the air. 3)先行词表时间时，关系词由关系副词when担任，在从句中作时间状语。
例如： Agriculture first started about 10,000 years ago, when people began to grow crops in the river valleys of the Nile in Egypt, in the Middle East and in India.
4)先行词表地方时，关系词由关系副词where担任，在从句中作地点状语。
例如： He returned to Dublin, where he formed his own pop group.
3.判断是否由that来引导定语从句
1）习惯上要用that引导的定语从句
（1）当先行词是指物的all, little, few, much, any, anything, everything, nothing, none, the one时，或先行词被all, little, few, much, any, every, no等修饰时。
例如： All that can be done has been done. He will tell you everything that he heard about it.
（2）先行词是序数词或最高级形容词时，或者先行词被序数词(包括last, next)、最高级形容词及the only, the very等修饰时。
例如： This is the first film that I have seen since I came here.
（3）先行词包括人和物时。
例如： They often talk about the people and the things that they are interested in.
（4）当主句是以who或which开头的疑问句时，为了避免重复，多用that引导。 例如： Which is the house that caught fire last night? Who is the lady that is playing the piano?
2）习惯上不用that引导的定语从句
（1）在非限制性定语从句中，不以能用that引导。 例如： Yesterday I met Mary, who seemed very excided.
（2）直接在介词后作宾语时，不能用that引导，要用whom, whose或which，且不能省略。
例如： The house in which we live is not large. I know the young man with whom you live. 但当介词放在从句的末尾时，可以用that替代which, who替代whom，也可以省略关系代词。
例如： The house (which/that) we live in is not large. I know the man (whom/who/that) you live with.
（3）当先行词是指人的all, any, few, one(s), anyone, everyone, those, people, he等时，只能用who。
例如： None is blind as those who won't see. Anyone who is over sixteen is allowed in.
（4）当先行词与关系代词之间有较复杂的短语或从句隔开时。
例如：I was the only person in my office who was invited. A new master will come tomorrow who will teach you German.
4. 由what，as引导的定语从句
1）what引导的定语从句 what作为关系代词时，用法很特殊，被看作是先行词和关系代词的结合体。一般情况下被理解为the things that，all that或something that，在句中充当主语或宾语等名词性成分。它引导从句时，前面不应该再出现先行词。
例如： For Williams, those activities became what he calls “electronic heroin”…
（1）what单独使用，后不接名词，表示物或人 例如： She is not what she used to be. One difficulty is that almost all of what is called behavioral science continues to trace behavior to states of mind, feelings, traits of character, human nature, and so on. （2002）
（2）what后接名词——“所有的……，尽可能多的……”
例如： He claims to be an expert in astronomy, but in fact he is quite ignorant on the subject. What little he knows about it is out of date and inaccurate. (1997)
2）关系代词as引导的定语从句 as可引导限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句，根本区别在于: 前者as只用在一些固定结构如such/the same/as修饰的先行词后面；而后者没有结构要求。
例如： As can be seen from the comparison of these figures, the principle involves the active participation of the patient in the modification of his condition. (1999)
定语从句
1. The house ____ we live is not big. A. in that B. which C. in which D. that
2. He talked about the lecturers and schools ____ he had visited. A. that B. which C. who D. whom
3. The scientist the teacher is talking ____ is leaving for Beijing.
A. to him B. whom C. to D. to that
4. I who ____ your teacher, will teach Marxism as a truth to you.
A. is
B. are
C. were
D. am
5. ____ they could do was to work hard.
A. All
B. All what
C. All which
D. That
6. Do you know the reason ____ he didn’t come?
A. that
B. which
C. for
D. why
7. The room ____ windows face south is his.
A. that
B. which
C. whose
D. who’s
8. The park, ____ we visited yesterday, is very nice.
A. where
B. which
C. that
D. when
9. The park, ____ we met with him, is very nice.
A. where
B. which
C. that
D. when
10.The first time ____ I saw her was in 1989.
A. when
B. which
C. that
D. as
11.Pay attention to all ____ I do
A. which
B. in which
C. what D. that
12.I’ve read all the books ____ you gave me.
A. which
B. them
C. what
D. that
13.Is there anything ____ I can do for you?
A. what
B. which
C. that
D. it
14.The woman ____ child had fallen ill was a doctor.
A. who
B. her
C. whose
D. /
15.The pen ____ I’m using ____ is hers.
A. which; it
B. that; it
C. it; /
D. /; /
16.I have the same trouble ____ you have.
A. that
B. which
C. as
D. what
17.It’s the very book ____ I want to find.
A. which
B. that
C. it
D. so
18.He is the only one of the boys who ____ English for four years.
A. has learnt
B. have learnt
C. learn
D. learning
19.This is one of the books ____ worth reading.
A. that is
B. which are
C. it was
D. they are been
20.This is the best film ____ been shown this year.
A. which has
B. which have
C. that has
D. that have
21.Can you tell me the reason ____ you didn’t come for yesterday?
A. why
B. how
C. which
D. what
22.That is the reason ____ he came to see you.
A. when
B. that
C. which
D. for which
23.Do you still remember the day ____ we spent together last month?
A. that
B. in which
C. when
D. where
24.Oct. 1, 1949 was the day ____ the New China was founded.
A. that
B. in which
C. when
D. where
25.I’ve never seen such a lazy boy ____ you are.
A. which
B. who
C. that
D. as
26.There were many great leaders in the history ____ Abraham Lincoln was the greatest one.
A. in which
B. in whom
C. of which
D. of whom
27.Shanghai, ____ I have visited twice, has a large population.
A. where
B. which
C. what
D. that
28.The students didn’t like the way ____ she was dressed.
A./ B. which
C. what
D. how
29.I am determined to learn my subjects in the way ____ you have done.
A. in which
B. by what
C. what
D. where
30.I’ll do ____ to help you.
A. all I can B. all what I can
C. all those I manage
D. all which I can
（二）名词性从句 名词性从句主要有四类，即主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句和同位语从句。 引导名词性从句的常用连词如下图所示：
名词从句的引导词
对应的句子类型
是否做成分
连词that
陈述句
that在从句中不作成分(只起连接作用，后接陈述句)
连词whether, if
一般疑问句
whether, if在从句中不作成分
连接副词when, where, why, how； 连接代词who, whom, what, which, whose
特殊疑问句
when, where, why, how在从句中作状语； who, whom, what在从句中作主语，宾语或补语； which, whose在从句中作定语，后面接名词
注： 要特别关注这些连词在句中是否充当句子成分。这是考试的重点。
例如： Concerns were raised____ witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to ensure guilty verdicts.
A. what
B. when
C. which
D. that
一）主语从句 在主句中担任主语的从句，叫做主语从句（Subject Clause）。主语从句可以由陈述分句、疑问分句和名词定语分句担任。
例如： When he was born is unknown. What he did last night is being investigated. That many hands make light work is a well-known saying. 主语从句中应注意：
1. 主语从句一般用it作形式主语，放在句首，而将主语从句放到句末。
例如： It is possible that he has stolen the car. Isn’t it strange that he should not have passed the test?
附：考研中常见的主语从句句型（作文中也经常用到）：
1）It +过去分词+that从句 It's reported that …据报道…… It's believed that…人们相信……
2）It is +形容词+that从句 It is clear（显然……）/possible or likely（很可能……）/natural（很自然……）
3）It is +名词短语 +that从句 It is a pity that...可惜的是…… It is a fact that...事实是……
4）It +不及物动词+that从句 It seems（似乎……）/follows（因此……，由此可见……）/happens（碰巧……）
5）其他重要结构 It dawns upon/on sb. that…某人突然想起…… It occurs to sb. that…某人突然想起…… It makes no difference that………无所谓 It doesn’t need to be bothered that…不必担忧…… It is of little consequence that………无关紧要
2. if引导主语从句时，只能用it作形式主语，放在句首，而将if引导的主语从句放到句末。
例如： It is uncertain if he will leave for Beijing tomorrow. 3. that引导主语从句放在句首时，that不可省，但在句末口语中可省。
例如： That the seas are being overfished has been known for years.（2006） That he was ill yesterday is known now.
4. 连词whether以及连接代词或连接副词引导主语从句只能放在句首。
例如： Whether the eyes are "the window of the soul" is debatable; that they are intensely important in interpersonal communication is a fact. Who has broken the glass is unknown. What he wants is all here. How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.
5. 主语从句中主句的谓语动词一般用第三人称单数形式，但what引导主语从句的主句谓语动词的形式须根据句子的意思来判断。 例如： How he worked it out is still a secret. What they make in this factory are TV sets.
二）表语从句
在主句中担任表语的从句，叫做表语从句（Predictive Clause）。表语从句可以由陈述分句、疑问分句和名词定语分句担任，通常置于系动词之后。
例如： My idea is that he can teach children English in this school. The question is whether we shall run out of food soon. That is how Annie came to be with us. A report consistently brought back by visitors to the US is how friendly, courteous, and helpful most Americans were to them. (1997) 表语从句中应注意：
1. 连接词that一般不能省略，但当主句中含动词do的某种形式时，that可以省略。
例如： What I want to do is (that) I can go up to him and thank him.
2. 当句子的主语是：advice, demand, decision, desire, idea, insistence, instruction, order, plan, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, wish等名词时，表语从句须用虚拟语气，即：should +do。
例如： My advice is that you should go to apologize to him.
三）宾语从句 在主句中担任宾语的从句，叫做宾语从句。宾语从句有三种，即直接宾语从句，形容词宾语从句和介词宾语从句。
1. 直接宾语从句，即在及物动词（双宾语动词）后作宾语；它可以由陈述分句、疑问分句、名词定语分句和感叹分句担任。
例如： Do you remember all those years when scientists argued that smoking would kill us but the doubters insisted that we didn't know for sure? (2005) Prof. Lee's book will show you how what you have observed can be used in other contexts. I thought (that) it was going to be interesting, but in fact it wasn’t. He wanted to see for himself what the problems are. Goodness! Now I see what you’re talking about. Now, you know how important you are to you family.
2. 形容词宾语从句，它可以由陈述分句、疑问分句担任。
例如： I’m sorry that you are not happy yet in your new school. I’m afraid (that) all these offices are non-smoking offices. I’m not sure if she would be willing to meet us.
3. 介词宾语从句，它只能由疑问分词和名词定语分句担任。
例如： I will give this dictionary to whoever wants to have it. （1992） We need to think about how much we should charge our customers for using the phones. They were astonished by what they found. 宾语从句中须注意：
1．that 在口语中常被省略，但在正式的文体中，不能省；并且它一般不能引导介词的宾语从句，但可引导except, but, in 等少数介词的宾语从句。
例如： I didn’t know (that) he was Li Lei. I will do anything I can to help you except that I’m ill.
2． 宾语从句之后带有补足语成分时，一般须用it作形式宾语，把宾语从句放到句末，即“动词+it形式宾语+宾语补足语+that从句”，此时的that不能省。
例如： The boy has made it clear that they can’t play with his toys. You have all heard it repeated that men of science work by means of induction and deduction, that by the help of these operations, they, in a sort of sense, manage to extract from nature certain natural laws, and that out of these, by some special skill of their own, they build up their theories. (1993)
3．动词advise, ask, demand, desire, insist(坚决主张), order, propose, request, suggest(建议)等代的宾语从句须用虚拟语气，即：(should) do的形式。
例如： He asked that we (should) get there before nine o’clock. The teacher advised us that we (should) not waste our time.
4．宾语从句的时态与主句的时态须呼应。即：
1) 当主句谓语动词的时态是现在时或将来时，从句的谓语动词可用任何所需要的时态表示。 例如： He always says that he is our good friend. When the teacher knows what we have done, he will say that we have done a good deed.
2) 当主句谓语动词的时态为过去时，从句的谓语动词须用响应的过去时。 例如： He didn’t tell us he came from Shanghai. He said he had read the book.
3) 但当从句的内容是客观真理或客观事实，而不受时间的限制时，即使主句谓语动词为过去时，从句仍用一般现在时。
例如： Chairman Mao said that all the imperialists are paper tigers. When we were children, we were told that China is in the east of the world.
四）同位语从句
1. 当名词后面所接的从句表示与名词同位并为名词的实际内容时，这个从句就是同位语从句（Appositive Clause）。我们通常所见的同位语从句往往由that引导，而很少用whether，if以及连接代词或连接副词引导；因为我们补充名词的内容时多用陈述句，而很少采用一般疑问句或特殊疑问句。
例如： The news that China has joined the WTO excites us all. He told us the truth that he fell down from his bike this afternoon. 同位语从句也可由whether，if以及连接代词或连接副词引导，但不常用。 例如： There is no argument whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry. (1999)
2. 常用的同位语从句两大句型：
1）名词+that+陈述句
例如： There is a popular saying that family instability causes social instability. He was prepared to prove his theory that two different weights would fall to the ground at the same time. A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the disguised shadows of our unconscious desires and fears. (2005) Such behavior is regarded as “all to human”, with the underlying assumption that other animals would not be capable of this finely developed sense of grievance. (2005)
2）名词+其它成分+that+陈述句
例如： Evidence came up that specific speech sounds are recognized by babies as young as 6 months old. Concerns were raised____ witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to ensure guilty verdicts.
（ A. what B. when C. which D. that ） 同位语中应注意：
1.能带同位语从句的名词不多，常见的有：answer, belief, conclusion, decision, discovery, doubt, explanation, fact, hope, idea, information, knowledge, law, message, news, opinion, order, possibility, problem, promise, proof, proposal, question, report, risk, rumor, story, suggestion, truth, theory, thought, wish, word等。
例如： He sent us a message that he won’t come next week. There is no doubt that he is fit for this job.
2. 表示“命令、建议、要求” advice, demand, decision, desire, idea, insistence, instruction, order, plan, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, wish 等名词的同位语，须用虚拟语气。
例如： He made clear his desire that he should work hard to go to college.
3. 同位语从句与定语从句的区别：
1) 定语从句是形容词从句，其作用相当于一个形容词，是用来修饰前面的名词或代词的；同位语从句是名词从句，其作用相当于一个名词，是对前面的名词作进一步解释的。
例如： We heard the news that he had told her. We heard the news that he had won the game.
2) 定语从句的引导词在从句中充当一定的成分，可作主语、宾语、状语等；而同位语从句中的引导词在从句只起连接作用，不作任何句子成分。
例如： A plane is a machine that can fly. The fact that they didn't finish the work has to be faced. 3) 引导定语从句的关联词在从句中作宾语或状语时，可以省略或被其他词代替；而同位语从句的引导词一般不能省略，更不能被代替。
例如： The news that she heard is true. The news that she will go abroad is true. The reason why he was chosen remains unknown. The idea why he was chosen attracted our attention.
4) 同位语从句与其所修饰的名词之间是一种同位关系，二者之间存在逻辑上的系表关系，可用“主+系+表”结构来表示。
例如： The news that he won the first place is true. 上句若用“主+系+表”结构来表示，则是：
5) 定语从句所修饰、限定的先行词可以是各类名词，可以有复数形式；而同位语从句一般都与抽象名词同位，一般没有复数形式。
例如： The possibilities that she was offered seemed very great. Her mother was worried about the possibility that her daughter dislike to go to school. 6) 由when, why, where引导的定语从句分别修饰或说明表示时间、原因或地点的词，但它们引导的同位语从句一般不和表示时间或地点的词同位。
例如： I still remember the day when I first came to Beijing。 I have no idea when she will be back. This is the house where I lived two years ago. The question where we shall have a meeting hasn't decided.
如果在定语从句与同位语从句的学习中能把握住上述几种区别，那么在阅读文章时，就会迎刃而解，收到更好的效果。
五）名词从句的复杂“嵌套” 一个句子可能含有多个名词从句，形成嵌套结构，遇到时要仔细分析句子结构。
例如： I realized that what I said was not exactly what I meant to say. The question is how what you have learned can be put into practice. 有时，这种名词从句的嵌套结构还带有定语从句的修饰。
例如： No one is in the least interested in the marks a little child gets on his test; what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks which we think require “general intelligence”.
(1992) 名词性从句部分练习
1. ____ I want to know is ____ it is worth doing. A. What; that B. What; whether C. That; why D. That; what
2. ____ visits the Great Wall will be struck by it. A. Anyone B. Each C. Whoever D. Everybody
3. ____ the workers insisted on was that they ____ more pay. A. That; must be given B. What; should give C. Whether; would be given D. What; be given
4. She asked ____. A. what I was doing when she rang me up B. What was I doing when she rang me up C. When she rang me up what was I doing D. When did she ring me up what I was doing
5. Writing stories and articles ____ I enjoy most. A. is that B. are that C. is what D. have been what
6. ____ he told us is a ____. A. That; lay B. Which; true C. What; lie D. Whose; truth
7. It was not until the headmaster came ____. A. and so the students got down to work B. did the students get down to work C. that the students got down to work D. then the students got down to work
8.--- ____ you did? --- No, as a matter of fact I didn’t need to. A. Is that what B. Is what that C. What is that D. Is that which
9.She is pleased with ____ you have given her and all ____ you have told. A. that; that B. what; which C. what; that D. all; what
10.They expressed the hope ____ they would come over to visit China again. A. which B. that C. whether D. for which
（三）状语从句 在主句中担任状语的从句，叫做状语语从句（Adverbial Clause）；它是由从属连词将几个分句连接起来，来表达分句之间特定的逻辑关系。 状语从句的引导词主要有：
副词从句种类
常用连词
特殊连词
时间状语从句
1. 一些时间名词：一些副词：instantly, immediately, directly 2. 固定搭配的连词：no sooner…than, hardly…when, scarcely…when
地点状语从句
wherever, anywhere, everywhere
原因状语从句
seeing that, considering that, now that, given that, in that, in as much as, in so much as
目的状语从句
lest, for fear that, in case, in the hope that, on purpose that, for the purpose that, to the end that
结果状语从句
such that, to the degree that, to the extent that, to such a degree that, to such an extent that
条件状语从句
suppose, supposing, providing, provided, on condition that, so long as, as long as
让步状语从句
while, as（用于倒装结构）, whether…or, wh-ever: whatever, whoever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever as + adj. + as +主谓结构（用在句首）
比较状语从句
the more…,the more…; just as…,so…; A is to B what/as C is to D; no more…than; not A so much as B / not so much A as B
方式状语从句
Is this the watch which he was looking for?
That作介词宾语时，介词只可置于从句之末。
例如:
If it is a book on a subject that you are interested in, you will want to “chew and digest it”.
总之，只要介词置于从句之末，用which/that或省略均可。
例如：
That is the exhibition (which/that) you should go to.
3)先行词表时间时，关系词由关系副词when担任，在从句中作时间状语。
例如：
This was at a time when there was no radio, TV or cinema.
4)先行词表地方时，关系词由关系副词where担任，在从句中作地点状语。
例如：
Today many of them live in special areas where they can continue their way of life.
5)先行词表原因时（只有reason一词），关系词由关系副词why担任，在从句中作原因状语，先行词在句中常省略。
例如：
I do not know (the reason) why they quarreled.
注：
关系副词when和where有时可用“介词＋which”代替，why可用for which代替。
例如：
There are occasions when one must yield.
Beijing is the place where I was born.
Is this the reason why he refused our offer?
先行词虽然是时间或地点，但若在定语从句中作主语或宾语时，要用关系代词。
例如：
比较：
The factory where his father worked has closed.
The factory which/that was built in 1978 has closed.
比较：
I’ll never forget the days when we lived together.
I’ll never forget the days (that) we spent in Australia.
比较：
The reason (why) she was ill was that she had eaten bad meat.
The reason (that) he gave for his absence was obviously fabricated.
2. 非限制性定语从句（nonrestrictive attributive clause）：
在非限制性定语从句中，从句与先行词关系比较松散，用逗号隔开。
1)先行词表人时，关系词由关系代词who，whom，whose担任（that不能担任非限制性定语从句的关系词）：
（1）在从句中作主语用who
例如：
Martin Luther King, Jr., who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, was an important political leader in the USA.
（2）作宾语用whom（需置于从句之首）, who
例如：
That man, whom/who I met yesterday, is a film director.
（3）作定语用whose（需置于从句之首）
例如：
My brother, whose arms had been broken by the police, was not taken to the hospital.
注：
关系代词作介词宾语时，可用whom，介词须置于从句之首。
例如：
These papers belong to Bernard, with whom I am sharing a room.
whom常作of属格的宾语。
例如：
About 2,000 people, many of whom were Europeans, worked on the project.
whose也可置于介词之后作of属格宾语中的定语。
例如：
I decided to write about Chaplin, one of whose films I had seen several years before.
2)先行词表物时，关系词由关系代词which担任（that不能担任非限制性定语从句的关系词），在从句中作主语或宾语。
例如：
The dam, which is the biggest in the world, is 3,830 meters long.
注：
关系代词which在从句中可用作介词宾语，介词可置于从句之首或从句之末；并常用作of属格的宾语。
例如：
It was like stepping into a secret art museum, in which we were the only visitors.
North Island is famous for an area of hot springs, some of which throw hot water high into the air.
3)先行词表时间时，关系词由关系副词when担任，在从句中作时间状语。
例如：
Agriculture first started about 10,000 years ago, when people began to grow crops in the river valleys of the Nile in Egypt, in the Middle East and in India.
4)先行词表地方时，关系词由关系副词where担任，在从句中作地点状语。
例如：
He returned to Dublin, where he formed his own pop group.
3.判断是否由that来引导定语从句
1）习惯上要用that引导的定语从句
（1）当先行词是指物的all, little, few, much, any, anything, everything, nothing, none, the one时，或先行词被all, little, few, much, any, every, no等修饰时。
例如：
All that can be done has been done.
He will tell you everything that he heard about it.
（2）先行词是序数词或最高级形容词时，或者先行词被序数词(包括last, next)、最高级形容词及the only, the very等修饰时。
例如：
This is the first film that I have seen since I came here.
（3）先行词包括人和物时。
例如：
They often talk about the people and the things that they are interested in.
（4）当主句是以who或which开头的疑问句时，为了避免重复，多用that引导。
例如：
Which is the house that caught fire last night?
Who is the lady that is playing the piano?
2）习惯上不用that引导的定语从句
（1）在非限制性定语从句中，不以能用that引导。
例如：
Yesterday I met Mary, who seemed very excided.
（2）直接在介词后作宾语时，不能用that引导，要用whom, whose或which，且不能省略。
例如：
The house in which we live is not large.
I know the young man with whom you live.
但当介词放在从句的末尾时，可以用that替代which, who替代whom，也可以省略关系代词。
例如：
The house (which/that) we live in is not large.
I know the man (whom/who/that) you live with.
（3）当先行词是指人的all, any, few, one(s), anyone, everyone, those, people, he等时，只能用who。
例如：
None is blind as those who won't see.
Anyone who is over sixteen is allowed in.
（4）当先行词与关系代词之间有较复杂的短语或从句隔开时。
例如：
I was the only person in my office who was invited.
A new master will come tomorrow who will teach you German.
4. 由what，as引导的定语从句
1）what引导的定语从句
what作为关系代词时，用法很特殊，被看作是先行词和关系代词的结合体。一般情况下被理解为the things that，all that或something that，在句中充当主语或宾语等名词性成分。它引导从句时，前面不应该再出现先行词。
例如：
For Williams, those activities became what he calls “electronic heroin”…
（1）what单独使用，后不接名词，表示物或人
例如：
She is not what she used to be.
One difficulty is that almost all of what is called behavioral science continues to trace behavior to states of mind, feelings, traits of character, human nature, and so on. （2002）
（2）what后接名词——“所有的……，尽可能多的……”
例如：
He claims to be an expert in astronomy, but in fact he is quite ignorant on the subject. What little he knows about it is out of date and inaccurate. (1997)
2）关系代词as引导的定语从句
as可引导限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句，根本区别在于: 前者as只用在一些固定结构如such/the same/as修饰的先行词后面；而后者没有结构要求。
例如：
As can be seen from the comparison of these figures, the principle involves the active participation of the patient in the modification of his condition. (1999)
定语从句
1. The house ____ we live is not big.
A. in that
B. which
C. in which D. that
2. He talked about the lecturers and schools ____ he had visited.
A. that B. which
C. who D. whom
3. The scientist the teacher is talking ____ is leaving for Beijing.
A. to him B. whom
C. to D. to that
4. I who ____ your teacher, will teach Marxism as a truth to you.
A. is B. are
C. were D. am
5. ____ they could do was to work hard.
A. All B. All what
C. All which D. That
6. Do you know the reason ____ he didn’t come?
A. that B. which
C. for D. why
7. The room ____ windows face south is his.
A. that B. which
C. whose D. who’s
8. The park, ____ we visited yesterday, is very nice.
A. where B. which
C. that D. when
9. The park, ____ we met with him, is very nice.
A. where B. which
C. that D. when
10. The first time ____ I saw her was in 1989.
A. when B. which
C. that D. as
11. Pay attention to all ____ I do.
A. which B. in which
C. what D. that
12. I’ve read all the books ____ you gave me.
A. which B. them
C. what D. that
13. Is there anything ____ I can do for you?
A. what B. which
C. that D. it
14. The woman ____ child had fallen ill was a doctor.
A. who B. her
C. whose D. /
15. The pen ____ I’m using ____ is hers.
A. which; it B. that; it
C. it; / D. /; /
16. I have the same trouble ____ you have.
A. that
B. which
C. as D. what
17. It’s the very book ____ I want to find.
A. which B. that
C. it D. so
18. He is the only one of the boys who ____ English for four years.
A. has learnt B. have learnt
C. learn D. learning
19. This is one of the books ____ worth reading.
A. that is B. which are
C. it was D. they are been
20. This is the best film ____ been shown this year.
A. which has B. which have
C. that has D. that have
21. Can you tell me the reason ____ you didn’t come for yesterday?
A. why B. how
C. which D. what
22. That is the reason ____ he came to see you.
A. when B. that
C. which D. for which
23. Do you still remember the day ____ we spent together last month?
A. that B. in which
C. when D. where
24. Oct. 1, 1949 was the day ____ the New China was founded.
A. that B. in which
C. when D. where
25. I’ve never seen such a lazy boy ____ you are.
A. which B. who
C. that D. as
26. There were many great leaders in the history ____ Abraham Lincoln was the greatest one.
A. in which B. in whom
C. of which D. of whom
27. Shanghai, ____ I have visited twice, has a large population.
A. where B. which
C. what D. that
28. The students didn’t like the way ____ she was dressed.
A./ B. which
C. what D. how
29. I am determined to learn my subjects in the way ____ you have done.
A. in which B. by what
C. what D. where
30. I’ll do ____ to help you.
A. all I can B. all what I can
C. all those I manage D. all which I can
（二）名词性从句
名词性从句主要有四类，即主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句和同位语从句。
引导名词性从句的常用连词如下图所示：
名词从句的引导词 对应的句子类型 是否做成分
连词that 陈述句 that在从句中不作成分(只起连接作用，后接陈述句)
连词whether, if 一般疑问句 whether, if在从句中不作成分
连接副词when, where, why, how；
连接代词who, whom, what, which, whose
特殊疑问句 when, where, why, how在从句中作状语；
who, whom, what在从句中作主语，宾语或补语；
which, whose在从句中作定语，后面接名词
注：
要特别关注这些连词在句中是否充当句子成分。这是考试的重点。
例如：
Concerns were raised____ witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to ensure guilty verdicts.
A. what
B. when
C. which
D. that
一）主语从句
在主句中担任主语的从句，叫做主语从句（Subject Clause）。主语从句可以由陈述分句、疑问分句和名词定语分句担任。
例如：
When he was born is unknown.
What he did last night
is being investigated.
That many hands make light work is a well-known saying.
主语从句中应注意：
1.
主语从句一般用it作形式主语，放在句首，而将主语从句放到句末。
例如：
It is possible that he has stolen the car.
Isn’t it strange that he should not have passed the test?
附：考研中常见的主语从句句型（作文中也经常用到）：
1）It +过去分词+that从句
It's reported that …据报道……
It's believed that…人们相信……
2）It is +形容词+that从句
It is clear（显然……）/possible or likely（很可能……）/natural（很自然……）
3）It is +名词短语 +that从句
It is a pity that...可惜的是……
It is a fact that...事实是……
4）It +不及物动词+that从句
It seems（似乎……）/follows（因此……，由此可见……）/happens（碰巧……）
5）其他重要结构
It dawns upon/on sb. that…某人突然想起……
It occurs to sb. that…某人突然想起……
It makes no difference that………无所谓
It doesn’t need to be bothered that…不必担忧……
It is of little consequence that………无关紧要
2.
if引导主语从句时，只能用it作形式主语，放在句首，而将if引导的主语从句放到句末。
例如：
It is uncertain if he will leave for Beijing tomorrow.
3.
that引导主语从句放在句首时，that不可省，但在句末口语中可省。
例如：
That the seas are being overfished has been known for years.（2006）
That he was ill yesterday is known now.
4.
连词whether以及连接代词或连接副词引导主语从句只能放在句首。
例如：
Whether the eyes are "the window of the soul" is debatable; that they are intensely important in interpersonal communication is a fact.
Who has broken the glass is unknown.
What he wants is all here.
How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount, reliability, and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.
5.
主语从句中主句的谓语动词一般用第三人称单数形式，但what引导主语从句的主句谓语动词的形式须根据句子的意思来判断。
例如：
How he worked it out is still a secret.
What they make in this factory are TV sets.
二）表语从句
在主句中担任表语的从句，叫做表语从句（Predictive Clause）。表语从句可以由陈述分句、疑问分句和名词定语分句担任，通常置于系动词之后。
例如：
My idea is that he can teach children English in this school.
The question is whether we shall run out of food soon.
That is how Annie came to be with us.
A report consistently brought back by visitors to the US is how friendly, courteous, and helpful most Americans were to them. (1997)
表语从句中应注意：
1.
连接词that一般不能省略，但当主句中含动词do的某种形式时，that可以省略。
例如：
What I want to do is (that) I can go up to him and thank him.
2.
当句子的主语是：advice, demand, decision, desire, idea, insistence, instruction, order, plan, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, wish等名词时，表语从句须用虚拟语气，即：should +do。
例如：
My advice is that you should go to apologize to him.
三）宾语从句
在主句中担任宾语的从句，叫做宾语从句。宾语从句有三种，即直接宾语从句，形容词宾语从句和介词宾语从句。
1. 直接宾语从句，即在及物动词（双宾语动词）后作宾语；它可以由陈述分句、疑问分句、名词定语分句和感叹分句担任。
例如：
Do you remember all those years when scientists argued that smoking would kill us but the doubters insisted that we didn't know for sure? (2005)
Prof. Lee's book will show you how what you have observed can be used in other contexts.
I thought (that) it was going to be interesting, but in fact it wasn’t.
He wanted to see for himself what the problems are.
Goodness! Now I see what you’re talking about.
Now, you know how important you are to you family.
2.
形容词宾语从句，它可以由陈述分句、疑问分句担任。
例如：
I’m sorry that you are not happy yet in your new school.
I’m afraid (that) all these offices are non-smoking offices.
I’m not sure if she would be willing to meet us.
3.
介词宾语从句，它只能由疑问分词和名词定语分句担任。
例如：
I will give this dictionary to whoever wants to have it. （1992）
We need to think about how much we should charge our customers for using the phones.
They were astonished by what they found.
宾语从句中须注意：
1．that 在口语中常被省略，但在正式的文体中，不能省；并且它一般不能引导介词的宾语从句，但可引导except, but, in
等少数介词的宾语从句。
例如：
I didn’t know (that) he was Li Lei.
I will do anything I can to help you except that I’m ill.
2．
宾语从句之后带有补足语成分时，一般须用it作形式宾语，把宾语从句放到句末，即“动词+it形式宾语+宾语补足语+that从句”，此时的that不能省。
例如：
The boy has made it clear that they can’t play with his toys.
You have all heard it repeated that men of science work by means of induction and deduction, that by the help of these operations, they, in a sort of sense, manage to extract from nature certain natural laws, and that out of these, by some special skill of their own, they build up their theories. (1993)
3．动词advise, ask, demand, desire, insist(坚决主张), order, propose, request, suggest(建议)等代的宾语从句须用虚拟语气，即：(should) do的形式。
例如：
He asked that we (should) get there before nine o’clock.
The teacher advised us that we (should) not waste our time.
4．宾语从句的时态与主句的时态须呼应。即：
1) 当主句谓语动词的时态是现在时或将来时，从句的谓语动词可用任何所需要的时态表示。
例如：
He always says that he is our good friend.
When the teacher knows what we have done, he will say that we have done a good deed.
2) 当主句谓语动词的时态为过去时，从句的谓语动词须用响应的过去时。
例如：
He didn’t tell us he came from Shanghai.
He said he had read the book.
3) 但当从句的内容是客观真理或客观事实，而不受时间的限制时，即使主句谓语动词为过去时，从句仍用一般现在时。
例如：
Chairman Mao said that all the imperialists are paper tigers.
When we were children, we were told that China is in the east of the world.
四）同位语从句
1. 当名词后面所接的从句表示与名词同位并为名词的实际内容时，这个从句就是同位语从句（Appositive Clause）。我们通常所见的同位语从句往往由that引导，而很少用whether，if以及连接代词或连接副词引导；因为我们补充名词的内容时多用陈述句，而很少采用一般疑问句或特殊疑问句。
例如：
The news that China has joined the WTO excites us all.
He told us the truth that he fell down from his bike this afternoon.
同位语从句也可由whether，if以及连接代词或连接副词引导，但不常用。
例如：
There is no argument whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry. (1999)
2. 常用的同位语从句两大句型：
1）名词+that+陈述句
例如：
There is a popular saying that family instability causes social instability.
He was prepared to prove his theory that two different weights would fall to the ground at the same time.
A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the disguised shadows of our unconscious desires and fears. (2005)
Such behavior is regarded as “all to human”, with the underlying assumption that other animals would not be capable of this finely developed sense of grievance. (2005)
2）名词+其它成分+that+陈述句
例如：
Evidence came up that specific speech sounds are recognized by babies as young as 6 months old.
Concerns were raised____ witnesses might be encouraged to exaggerate their stories in court to ensure guilty verdicts.
（
A. what
B. when
C. which
D. that
）
同位语中应注意：
1.能带同位语从句的名词不多，常见的有：answer, belief, conclusion, decision, discovery, doubt, explanation, fact, hope, idea, information, knowledge, law, message, news, opinion, order, possibility, problem, promise, proof, proposal, question, report, risk, rumor, story, suggestion, truth, theory, thought, wish, word等。
例如：
He sent us a message that he won’t come next week.
There is no doubt that he is fit for this job.
2.
表示“命令、建议、要求”
advice, demand, decision, desire, idea, insistence, instruction, order, plan, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, wish 等名词的同位语，须用虚拟语气。
例如：
He made clear his desire that he should work hard to go to college.
3.
同位语从句与定语从句的区别：
1) 定语从句是形容词从句，其作用相当于一个形容词，是用来修饰前面的名词或代词的；同位语从句是名词从句，其作用相当于一个名词，是对前面的名词作进一步解释的。
例如：
We heard the news that he had told her.
We heard the news that he had won the game.
2) 定语从句的引导词在从句中充当一定的成分，可作主语、宾语、状语等；而同位语从句中的引导词在从句只起连接作用，不作任何句子成分。
例如：
A plane is a machine that can fly.
The fact that they didn't finish the work has to be faced.
3) 引导定语从句的关联词在从句中作宾语或状语时，可以省略或被其他词代替；而同位语从句的引导词一般不能省略，更不能被代替。
例如：
The news that she heard is true.
The news that she will go abroad is true.
The reason why he was chosen remains unknown.
The idea why he was chosen attracted our attention.
4) 同位语从句与其所修饰的名词之间是一种同位关系，二者之间存在逻辑上的系表关系，可用“主+系+表”结构来表示。
例如：
The news that he won the first place is true.
上句若用“主+系+表”结构来表示，则是：
5) 定语从句所修饰、限定的先行词可以是各类名词，可以有复数形式；而同位语从句一般都与抽象名词同位，一般没有复数形式。
例如：
The possibilities that she was offered seemed very great.
Her mother was worried about the possibility that her daughter dislike to go to school.
6) 由when, why, where引导的定语从句分别修饰或说明表示时间、原因或地点的词，但它们引导的同位语从句一般不和表示时间或地点的词同位。
例如：
I still remember the day when I first came to Beijing。
I have no idea when she will be back.
This is the house where I lived two years ago.
The question where we shall have a meeting hasn't decided.
如果在定语从句与同位语从句的学习中能把握住上述几种区别，那么在阅读文章时，就会迎刃而解，收到更好的效果。
五）名词从句的复杂“嵌套”
一个句子可能含有多个名词从句，形成嵌套结构，遇到时要仔细分析句子结构。
例如：
I realized that what I said was not exactly what I meant to say.
The question is how what you have learned can be put into practice.
有时，这种名词从句的嵌套结构还带有定语从句的修饰。
例如：
No one is in the least interested in the marks a little child gets on his test; what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks which we think require “general intelligence”. (1992)
名词性从句部分练习
1. ____ I want to know is ____ it is worth doing.
A. What; that B. What; whether
C. That; why D. That; what
2. ____ visits the Great Wall will be struck by it.
A. Anyone B. Each
C. Whoever D. Everybody
3. ____ the workers insisted on was that they ____ more pay.
A. That; must be given B. What; should give
C. Whether; would be given D. What; be given
4. She asked ____.
A. what I was doing when she rang me up
B. What was I doing when she rang me up
C. When she rang me up what was I doing
D. When did she ring me up what I was doing
5. Writing stories and articles ____ I enjoy most.
A. is that B. are that
C. is what D. have been what
6. ____ he told us is a ____.
A. That; lay B. Which; true
C. What; lie D. Whose; truth
7. It was not until the headmaster came ____.
A. and so the students got down to work
B. did the students get down to work
C. that the students got down to work
D. then the students got down to work
8. --- ____ you did?
--- No, as a matter of fact I didn’t need to.
A. Is that what B. Is what that
C. What is that D. Is that which
9. She is pleased with ____ you have given her and all ____ you have told.
A. that; that B. what; which
C. what; that D. all; what
10. They expressed the hope ____ they would come over to visit China again.
A. which B. that
C. whether D. for which
（三）状语从句
在主句中担任状语的从句，叫做状语语从句（Adverbial Clause）；它是由从属连词将几个分句连接起来，来表达分句之间特定的逻辑关系。
状语从句的引导词主要有：
副词从句种类 常用连词 特殊连词
时间状语从句 1.
一些时间名词：一些副词：instantly, immediately, directly
2.
固定搭配的连词：no sooner…than, hardly…when, scarcely…when
地点状语从句 wherever, anywhere, everywhere
原因状语从句 seeing that, considering that, now that, given that, in that, in as much as, in so much as
目的状语从句 lest, for fear that, in case, in the hope that, on purpose that, for the purpose that, to the end that
结果状语从句 such that, to the degree that, to the extent that, to such a degree that, to such an extent that
条件状语从句 suppose, supposing, providing, provided, on condition that, so long as, as long as
让步状语从句 while, as（用于倒装结构）, whether…or,
wh-ever: whatever, whoever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever
as + adj. + as +主谓结构（用在句首）
比较状语从句 the more…,the more…; just as…,so…; A is to B what/as C is to D; no more…than; not A so much as B / not so much A as B
方式状语从句
一）时间状语从句
据主句和从句的时间关系，时间状语从句可分为主句和从句同时发生，主句发生在从句之前，主句发生在从句之后和主句在从句之后立刻发生四种情形。
1.
主句和从句同时发生，由when, whenever（每当）, while , as（常用语口语，强调同一时间）等引导，意为“当……时候”。
1）when表一个特定时间（at that time），从句可置于主句之前或之后。
例如：
When he was still a young man, he was forced to leave his homeland for political reasons.
You are using energy even when you are asleep.
(1) when引导的从句可用一般现在时表将来。例如：
See you when I get back.
(2) 在从句中如用现在完成时则表示将来的过去，即主句从句均为将来，但从句发生在将来之前。
例如：When you have finished, please fold the map and out it away.
(3) 如从句用过去完成时，则主句用一般过去时。
例如：When she had finished listening to the news, she turned off the radio.
(4) 考研真题分析：
Hardly had he begun to speak when the audience interrupted him. (1991)
Doing your homework is a sure way to improve your test scores, and this is especially true when it comes to classroom tests. (1998)
On a rainy day I was driving north through Vermont when I noticed a young man holding up a sign reading “Boston”. (2000)
2）while表一段时间（during that time），从句可置于主句之前或之后。
(1) while所引导的从句常用延续性动词的进行时态。
例如：
I hurt it while I was doing gym.
(2) while所引导的从句常与系动词be连用表状态。
例如：
Your friends are coming to stay in your house for one week while you and your family are away on holiday.
(3) 考研真题分析：
The phenomenon provides a way for companies to remain globally competitive while avoiding market cycles and the growing burdens imposed by employment rules, healthcare costs and pension plans. （1997）
A. but
B. while
C. and
D. whereas
2.
主句发生在从句之前，常用before, until, till引导，意为“在……之前”。 从句可置于主句之前或之后。
1）
before的翻译——不要千篇一律翻译为“在……之前”
例如：
It took a few months of investigation before it became clear.
The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before realized how diverse languages could be.
2）
until，till意为“直到……时候”；从句通常置于主句之后。until前的主句谓语必须是延续性的；其后的从句谓语必须是短暂动词或接时间点。若主句谓语动词是短暂动词，则要用否定形式。故有“not…until…”：“直到……才……”的结构。
例如：
Until recently most historians spoke very critically of the Industrial Revolution. (1998)
It was not until the 19th century that the newspaper became the dominant pre-electric medium. (2002)
3.
主句发生在从句之后，由after，since引导，意为“在……之后”。
例如：
Since I was a child I have lived in England.
4.
主句在从句之后立刻发生, 由once，immediately（that），as soon as引导，意为“刚刚，一……就……”。
例如：
I have decided that once I return to England I shall make no more long expeditions.
I will ring you as soon as I have any more information.
二）地点状语从句
地点状语从句一般由where，wherever，anywhere，everywhere等引导，从句可置于主句之前或之后，意为“在……地方，无论在……地方”。
例如：
Stay where you are.
Wherever he happens to be, Clint can make himself at home.
Everywhere they appeared, there were troubles.
三）原因状语从句
原因状语从句由because, as, since, for等引导，从句可置于主句之前或之后，意为“因为，由于”。
1.
because语气最强，只有它能用来回答why的问句，引出的往往是听话人不知道的或最感兴趣的原因。
例如：
They make fun of me because I am shorter than anyone else.
2.
since通常置于句首，引出人们已知的不需要强调的原因，译为“既然”。
例如：
Since we do not have class tomorrow, why not go out for a picnic?
3.
as与since用法差不多。
例如：
Wear strong shoes as we shall do a lot of walking.
4.
for表推断的理由，是对前面分句的内容加以解释说明。
例如：
It rained last night, for the ground is wet this morning.
5.
其他复合连词表示原因：in that, seeing that, now that, considering that, given that意为“鉴于……，考虑到……”
例如：
Vitamins are different in that their elements are arranged differently. （1996）
Given/Seeing/Now that they are inexperienced, they have done a good job.
They did the job very well, considering that they had no experience.
四）目的状语从句
目的状语从句主要由so that, in order that, that引导，意为“为了，以便”。从句通常置于主句之后。由于目的状语从句所表达的是一种尚未实现的愿望，因此，从句中要求有一个情态动词can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would等。
例如：
Former Colorado governor Richard Lamm has been quoted as saying that the old and infirm “have a duty to die and get out of the way so that younger, healthier people can realize their potential. (2003)
其它引导词：lest, for fear(that), in case, 译为“以免，以防止，生怕”；in the hope that, on purpose that, for the purpose that, to the end that等来表目的，从句谓语动词一般用should加动词原形。
例如：
They (scientists) should be quick to respond to letters to the editor, lest animal rights misinformation go unchallenged and acquire a deceptive appearance of truth. (2003)
五）结果状语从句
结果状语从句常由so（… ）that （so后面接形容词、分词或副词）, such（…）that（such后接名词）, with the result that引导，从句只可置于主句之后。
例如：
He has put forward unquestioned claims so consistently that he not only believes them himself, but has convinced industrial and business management that they are true. (1999)
Historians, especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused of “tunnel method”, frequently fall victim to the “technicist fallacy”.
And home appliances will also become so smart that controlling and operating them will result in the breakout of a new psychological disorder----kitchen rage. (2001)
Native American languages are indeed different, so much so in fact that Navajo could be used by the US military as a code during World WarⅡ
to send secret messages. (2004)
Diplomats and crabs are creatures that move in such a way that it is impossible to tell whether they are coming or going.
His anger was such that he lost control of himself. = His anger was so explosive that he lost control of himself.
注：
以上句型中，为了强调，还可将主句中的so或such置于句首构成倒装句。
例如：
So involved with their computers ________ that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
A. became the children
B. become the children
C. had the children become
D. do the children become
其它引导词：to the degree (that), to the extent (that), to such a degree (that), to such an extent (that)等。当它们位于句首表强调时，主句需倒装。
例如：
“Large numbers of physicians seem unconcerned with the pain their patients are needlessly and predictably suffering,” to the extent that it constitutes “systematic patient abuse.” (2002)
To such an extent did his health deteriorate that he was forced to retire.
六）条件状语从句
这里只分析真实条件句，非真实条件句将在以后的虚拟语气考点中讲解。
1. 条件状语从句由if（如果，倘若）, unless（除非）, as long as（只要）, so long as（只要）等引导，从句可置于主句之前或之后。
例如：
If you are waiting for a bus, everyone stands in a queue.
Do not lend books to friends unless you can be sure of getting them back.
So/As long as you work hard enough, an iron rod can be ground into a neddle.
2. 比较only if（只有）与if only（只要）
例如：
The senior librarian at the circulation desk promised to get the book for me if only she could remember who last borrowed it. (1996)
He can continue to support himself and his family only if he produces a surplus.
3.
must / will have to do…if…be to do结构——如果（从句）一定得怎么样，那么（主句）也必须得怎么样。
例如：
The first two must be equal for all who are being compared, if any comparison in terms of intelligence is to be made. (1992)
If it doesn’t rain within the next few weeks, the crops will have to be watered if they are to survive.
4. 其它引导词：suppose（that）, supposing（that）, providing（that）, provided（that）,on condition that等。
例如:
You can arrive in Beijing earlier for the meeting provided (that) you don’t mind taking the night train. (1992)
Suppose nothing happens to you.
5. 其它表示条件意味的句型：
1）祈使句/省略句+and…=if从句+主句
例如：
Talk to anyone in the drug industry, and you’ll soon discover that the science of genetics is the biggest thing to hit drug research since penicillin was discovered.
2）祈使句/省略句+or/or else=unless从句+主句
例如：
Give it back to me or (else) I’ll tell your parents. = Unless you give it back to me, I’ll tell your parents.
七）让步状语从句
让步状语从句主要由although, though, if, even if, even though, while等引导，主句前不可用but，但可用still/yet。
例如：
Although he tried hard, (yet/still) he failed.
The engineers are going through with their highway project, even though the expenses have risen. (1992)
All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, although a direct causal relationship has not yet been established. (2004)
所有这些条件都会增加青少年犯罪的可能性，虽然其中的直接因果关系尚未证实。
1. 表示让步转折关系的介词：despite, in spite of, for all, notwithstanding。
注：这些介词后加名词，不接从句。
例如:
Despite what he achieved in medicine, he remained modest.
2. 表示让步转折关系的副词：however, nevertheless, nonetheless, though（还可用作副词“不过，然而”）等。
例如：
This view, however, is generally thought to be wrong.
Getting enough vitamins is essential to life, although the body has no nutritional use for excess vitamins. Many people, nevertheless, believe in being on the “safe side” and thus take extra vitamins. (1996)
3. 置于句首的“while”一般表示“尽管……”
例如：
I have excluded him because, while his accomplishments may contribute to the solution of moral problems, he has not been charged with the task of approaching any but the factual aspects of those problems.
4. no matter wh-
No matter +what, who, when, which, where, how可代替whatever, whover, whenever, whichever, wherever, however来引导让步状语从句，表示“无论……”。
注：
除however后加形容词或副词外，其它都可单独使用。
例如：
There are over 100 night schools in the city, making it possible for a professional to be reeducated no matter what he does. (1998)
But however amazed our descendants may be at how far from Utopia we were, they will look just like us. (2000)
5. as引导的倒装句表让步
as引导的倒装句结构：adj./adv./分词/名词（无冠词）/短语+as+主语+谓语
例如：
Young as he is, he is brave.
Much as I respect him, I can not agree with him.
Again as he failed in doing this experiment, he didn’t lose his heart.
另外，可把动词原形置于句首，即：v. +as+主语+助动词(may/might, will/would, can/could, do/does/did)。
例如：
Lose money as I did, I got a lot of experience.
6. as/so+形容词+as+主谓结构，放在句首，表示让步
例如：
As much as John hates to do it, he must stay at home and study tonight.
7. be的倒装句表示让步
例如：
Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions, be they Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on. (2002)
八）比较状语从句
1. as引导的比较状语从句
1）as+形容词/副词+as
例如：
I find records are often as good as, if not better than, an actual performance.
2）as+形容词+a（n）+可数名词单数+as
例如：
His function is analogous to that of a judge, who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a manner as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision. (2006)
2. than引导的比较状语从句中为了保持句子平衡，从句可全部或部分倒装，即than+助动词+主语
例如：
Foreign-born Asians and Hispanics “have higher rates of intermarriage than do US-born whites and blacks. (2006)
3. the more…the more…
例如：
The more foreign capital you have helping you build your Third Wave infrastructure, which today is an electronic infrastructure, the better off you are going to be. (2001)
4．（just）as…, so…（正如……，所以……）
例如：
Just as the soil is a part of the earth, so is the atmosphere.
注：so引导的分句要用倒装结构。
As you sow, so will you reap.
5. no more…than/not …any more than（“同……一样不”/“……不能……，就如同（than从句）……不能……一样”/“正如（than从句）……不能……，所以，……同样不能……”
例如：
But his primary task is not to think about the moral code, which governs his activity, any more than a businessman is expected to dedicate his energies to an exploration of rules of conduct in business. (2006)
The heart is no more intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain.（1994）（同样不……）
6. not…so much as…
基本句型有：
例如：
It wasn’t so much that I disliked her as that I just wasn’t interested in the whole business. (2000)
九）比方式状语从句
方式状语从句由as, like, as if, as though, the way等引导。
例如：
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
Dance like nobody is watching.
He looks as if / as though he is an actor.
Do it the way you were taught.
状语从句部分练习
1. It was not ____ he took off his dark glass ____ I realized who he was.
A. when; that B. until; when
C. when; then D. until; that
2. ____ he is very good at numbers.
A. As he is a small boy B. A small boy he is
C. A small boy as he is D. Small boy as he is
3. ____ Newton started to do experiments, he forgot about the time.
A. When B. Once
C. If D. As
4. ____ hard I tried, I still couldn’t manage it.
A. No matter B. However
C. Although D. Though
5. We young people should go ____ the Party wands us to.
A. no matter where B. to the place
C. to any place D. wherever
6. Make a mark ____ you have any questions.
A. which B. in which
C. what D. where
7. ____ time went on, the weather got colder and colder.
A. With B. Since
C. While D. As
8. Sorry I haven’t been able to do ____ I should.
A. as many as B. as much as
C. as far as D. more than
9. You’ve done much better ____ expected.
A. as B. than
C. more than D. such as
10. Everything returned to normal ____ nothing had happened.
A. as if B. because
C. when D. for
11. Take an umbrella with you ____ it should rain.
A. in no case B. in the case
C. in case of D. in case
12. So ____ that no one could catch up with him.
A. did he run quickly B. he ran quickly C. quickly did he run D. quickly he ran
13. ____ we had to walk home.
A. There being no buses B. Being no buses
C. As there were no buses D. There were no buses
14. Hardly ____ come into the room ____ the meeting began.
A. had they; when B. they had; when
C. did they; than D. they did; then
15. I wrote down his name and address ____ I should forget it.
A. in order that B. for fear that
C. so that D. since
三．as的用法
在英文中，as有四个词性，即介词，关系代词，副词和连词；不同的词性决定了它不同的用法。
（一）as 作介词
一）动词+as
用作介词的as常和一些动词搭配使用，比如：define…as…（把……定义为……），view…as…（把……看作……），see…as…（把……看作……），regard…as…（把……当作……），think of…as…（把……看作……）, refer to…as…（把……称作……），use…as…（把……用作……），classify…as…（把……划归为……），等等。
例如：
I shall define him as an individual who has elected as his primary duty and pleasure in life the activity of thinking in a Socratic way about moral problems.（2006）
Intellect is resented as a form of power or privilege. (2004) The children of immigrants tend to be bilingual and proficient in English. “By the third generation, the original language is lost in the majority of immigrant families.” Hence the description of America as a “graveyard” for languages. (2006)
注：
as后除可接名词和名词短语外，还可接形容词。
例如：
But somewhere from the 19th century onward, more artists began seeing happiness as insipid, phony or, worst of all, boring as we went from Wordsworth’s daffodils to Baudelaire’s flowers of evil. （2006）
二）as单独使用
as可单独使用，意为“作为……，当作……”
例如：
As a logical consequence of this development, separate journals have now appeared aimed mainly towards either professional or amateur readership. (2001)
三）as作后置定语
as用在名词后面，作后置定语，在意义上相当于所修饰的名词的同位语。
例如：
Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science. (1994)
（二）as 作副词
在as…as…结构中，前一个as是副词，后一个as是连词（有时可省去）；在否定句中，作副词用的 as 可以用 so 代替。
例如：
The book is pretty difficult. That one is as difficult.
It's not so easy as he said.
（三）as 作关系代词引导定语从句
详见前面定语从句。
（四）as 作连词
as做连词可引导时间状语从句（随着……；一边……一边……），原因状语从句（既然，因为……），方式状语从句（如，像……：修饰句子的谓语部分），让步状语从句（虽然，尽管……），比较状语从句。（详见前面状语从句）
定语从句
1.
C
live是不及物动词，live in the house
2.
A
先行词是lecturers and schools，同时有人和物
3.
C
The scientist （that）the teacher is talking to中省略了that
4.
D
在“代词+定语从句”的结构中，从句谓语的人称、性、数要与被修饰的代词保持一致。
5.
A
All （that）they could do中省略了that
6.
D
先行词是the reason，用why引导
7.
C
the windows of the room，表所属
8.
B
非限制性定语从句用which引导
9.
A
从句中缺状语——we met with him in the park，A选项where=in which
10.
C
先行词time被first修饰，用that引导
11.
D
先行词all，用that引导
12.
D
先行词the books被all修饰，用that引导
13.
C
先行词anything，用that引导
14.
C
the child of the woman，表所属
15.
D
The pen which/ that/不填I’m using 不填
is hers.
16.
C
the same…as…见as引导的定语从句
17.
B
先行词book被very修饰，用that引导
18.
A
先行词是the boys，但有only修饰，故用单数
19.
B
先行词是books，故用单数
20.
C
先行词film被the best修饰，且为单数
21.
C
先行词虽然是the reason，但是在定语从句中作的是宾语，要用关系代词引导。
22.
D
这里for which=why
23.
A
先行词是the day，引导词that=which，在从句中作宾语
24.
C
从句中缺时间状语，when此处等于on which。即the New China was founded on Oct. 1, 1949
25.
D
such…as…见as引导的定语从句
26.
D
先行词是人，并表示所属关系，即of whom=of many great leaders
27.
B
which引导非限制性定语从句，在从句中作宾语
28.
A
先行词是the way，引导词用that或省略
29.
C
what=all that，见what引导的定语从句
30.
A
all（that）I can中省略that
名词性从句
1.
B
what引导主语从句，whether引导表语从句
2.
C
whoever=anyone who
3.
D
what引导主语从句，that引导insist的宾语从句，从句要用虚拟语气
should+动词原形，此句为（should）be given
4.
A
主从句时态一致，what引导ask的宾语从句，when引导时间状语从句
5.
C
what引导表语从句，且动名词作主语，谓语动词用单数
6.
C
what引导主语从句
7.
C
It was not until…that…中it作形式主语，that从句做真正主语
8.
A
转换句型即That is what you did. What引导表语从句
9.
C
what和that引导介词with的宾语从句
10.
B
that引导hope的同位语从句
状语从句
1.
D
It was not until…that…直到……才……
2.
D
as引导的倒装结构表让步
3.
B
once引导条件状语从句，表示“一旦……就……”
4.
B
however +形容词=no matter how+形容词
5.
D
wherever引导地点状语从句，在从句中作宾语
6.
D
where在此意为“无论……地方”，引导地点状语从句，不能用in which替换。no matter where不引导地点状语从句。
7.
D
as表伴随，引导伴随时间状语从句
8.
C
as far as就……（而论，而言）
9.
B
much better than ，than引导比较状语从句
10.
A
as if引导方式状语从句
11.
D
in case意为“以防……”，引导目的状语从句
12.
C
so…that…引导结果状语从句，so位于句首表强调，用到装
13.
C
as引导的时间状语从句
14.
A
no sooner …than…, hardly…when…意为“一……就……”，主句要到装
15.
B
for fear that意为“以防……”，引导目的状语从句
