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10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)
11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. 12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.
14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate. 16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms. 17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. 18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.
19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.
20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below. 21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.
22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.
23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].
24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning. 25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.
28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.
29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04) 30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05) Chapter 4: Syntax
1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.
4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.
5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.
6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP. 8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. 9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. 10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements. -
11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.
13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.
14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.
15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)
16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer. 17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. 18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.
19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause. 20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier. 21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another. 22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.
23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.
24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.
25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)
26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. 27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.
28. move α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.
29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.
Chapter 3: Morphology 1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.
2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.
3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.
4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.
5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.
6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.
7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.
8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.
9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. 11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.
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12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.
13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words
14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense. (04)
Chapter 2: Phonology
1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication. 2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world’s languages. (06C)
3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)
4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.
5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords. 7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.
8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.
9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.
10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds. 11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.
12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound. 13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created. 14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.
15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another. 16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction. 17. monophthong : the individual vowel.
18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. 19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language. 20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. (06F/ 04) 21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.(07C/ 05) 22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. (06C)
23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.
25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.
26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.
28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.
30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. 31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
英语语言学习知识名词解释
