《现代语言学》应考指导
一、考试相关情况说明 （一）课程基本情况
《现代语言学》是英语专业本科生的必修课程之一。本课程的指定教材是全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会组编，何兆熊、梅德明主编：《现代语言学》 ，高等教育出版社1999年版。
本教材系统介绍了现代语言学研究的分支及基本理论，从语言的角度分析了语言本身的性质及与社会等各学科之间的关系，揭示了语言各个层面具有的特征。
（二）题型与分值 题型 单项选择题 填空题 是非题 名词解释题 论述题 小计 分值 共10小题，每题2分 共10小题，每题1分 共10小题，每题2分 共10小题，每题3分 共2小题，每题10分 42小题 分值 20分 10分 20分 30分 20分 100分
（三）重难点分布
从知识点分布来看，本课程试题覆盖了教材10章的全部内容。从整体来看，教材10章内容知识点分布不均匀，重点章节主要是第1章，第3章，第4章，第5章，第6章，第8章，第9章及第10章。第2章，第7章相对次之。
（四）试题难度
从试题难度来看，试题知识面涵盖广。对于重点知识每年都会重复出现，只是以不同的形式出现，每年考查的内容较多。这一点大家要特别注意，不要以为以前考过的知识点就不会再考。虽然每年均有偏题出现，一般是属于课程涉及的较细的内容，但所占比例较低，属于正常情况。总体而言，试题较为容易。
（五）命题特点
整体上看，出题顺序基本上按照教材章节顺序来出题，但并不是特别规律。此特点有助于我们答题时准确把握考点所属章节，提高答题正确率。
从具体题型来看，单选题和填空题出题的特点为概念性知识点会常考，是非题也集中于一些基本知识点的掌握。
名词解释题，论述题没有规律可循，因此，将书中出现的概念及相关基本理论全部掌握即可，千万不要押题，否则容易失分。
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二、本课程的学习建议
1.考生在开始学习这门课时，应根据自己的情况制定一个切实可行的学习计划，合理安排时间，通常可分为二个阶段：一是依据教材分章学习和做同步练习题阶段；二是总复习阶段，其复习技巧将在下面单独介绍。
2.紧扣大纲复习。最好能够按照大纲中提炼的课程内容将教材内容简化成自己的学习小册子。也就是将大纲中课程内容总分再充实一下，各知识点都丰富一下。比如说某个概念，要把定义或含义写在这个概念之后。利于记忆。此外，要注意课程内容中没有的知识点，如果考核要求中有的话，有必要补充完整。
3.注意总结教材中某些知识点，概念性知识点都要加以标识，这些知识点都是最容易出题的。 4.每复习完一遍教材做一套真题，这样将近三年试题认真做过，一边阅读教材一边做题会检查自己对所学知识的掌握情况，可以有针对性地指导自己的下一轮复习。
三、各类题型的特点和答题技巧 （一）单项选择题
单项选择题通常是考核教材中的基本知识点，绝大部分知识点属于识记和领会层次。因此，要想在单项选择题部分拿高分，甚至拿满分的话，就必须熟练地掌握教材内容。从近三年的试题情况来看，这部分考查的知识点比较细，需要大家在仔细阅读教材的过程中将一些特殊内容标识出来，专门予以背诵记忆。从难度来看，单选题的难度是所有题型中最容易的，应该说只要熟读教材，不会有不会做的题。
（二）填空题
填空题集中考查基本概念。难度在于对基本概念要熟记，便于很快相关概念。
（三）是非题
是非题也是围绕基本概念进行考察，内容涵盖面较广，范围可以是各章节中的基本概念。
（四）名词解释题
名词解释题基本上都是比较重要的概念，偶尔也会考到一些比较细的知识点。无论如何，只要在复习的过程中，将教材中的所有概念都一一列出，可以肯定的是名词解释题就不会丢分了。
（五）论述题
论述题是简答题的拓展，要求能够在回答要点的基础上进行比较充分详细的分析论证，绝对不能只答要点，不展开。那样一定会扣分。
内容串讲（Chapter 1 Introduction）
一、本章复习建议
本章是全书的绪论，通过本章节的学习可以宏观了解语言学学习和研究的内容以及一些基本概念，建议学员全面掌握,重点复习。
二、本章重要知识点讲解
1. What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition
Linguistics is generally defined as thescientific study of language.
Linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general. “Study” does not mean “learn” but “investigate” or “examine.”
The study is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
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The process of linguistic study:
Certain linguistic facts are observed, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made. Based on these generalizations, hypotheses are formulated to account for these facts. Hypotheses are tested by further observations. A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.
1.2 The scope of linguistics
General linguistics---- It deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.
Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so linguists have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time. The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.
The study of sound used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics.
Phonology is about how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.
Sounds are represented by certain symbols. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words is called morphology.
The study of rules that govern the combination of words to form sentences is called syntax. The study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semantics.
When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.
The above branches are summarized in the following table: (1)Intra-disciplinary divisions Phonetics sound Phonology Morphology Language as a system structure Syntax Semantics meaning Pragmatics (2)Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study:
The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics；Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology；Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics(in a narrow sense---refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.)
Other related branches--anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.
1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics
1.3.1 prescriptive vs. descriptive
If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e., to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.
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Linguistic study in the past is normally known as “grammar”. And today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is still basically prescriptive.
Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.
1.3.2 synchronic vs. diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various states of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 1.3.3 speech and writing
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.
Traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.
But modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language, which is considered as more basic that the written form for a number of reasons: First, in any human society we know of, speech precedes writing.
Second, there are still many languages that have only the spoken form.
Third, in terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.
1.3.4 langue and parole
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. He looks at language from a sociological point of view.
langue parole
conventions and rules users have to concrete use of conventions and
abide by the application of the rules
abstractconcrete
( notthe language people actual use)( refer to the occurring language event) relatively stable varies from person to person, and from situation to situation
1.3.5 competence and performance
The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Chomsky. He thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance. He looks at language from a psychological point of view.
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performanceas the actual realization of the knowledge in linguistic communication.
According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language,this enables himto produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.
Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance.
2. What is language? 2.1 Definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First of all, language is a system
Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing we use to write with.
Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.
Forth, the term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific, very different from the communication system other forms of life possess.
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2.2 Design features（识别特征）
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
1) Arbitrariness----There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
Language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
2) Productivity---language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new
signals by its users.
This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.
3) Duality--- language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.
No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.
4) Displacement---- language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined
matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.
5) Cultural transmission----Thoughwe are all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any
language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned, rather than by instinct
内容串讲（Chapter 2 Phonology）
一、本章复习建议
本章学习的中心内容是语音，包括语音学和音系学两大部分。要求对英语的元音和辅音的发音方式和特点能进行描述。能分清宽式音标和严式音标的区别。另外，对音系学中的一些最基本概念如音位、音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体等有所了解。能对序列规则、同化规则、对重音、语调、声调等几种超切分音系特征的表意作用能举例说明。
二、本章重要知识点讲解
1. The phonic medium of language（语言的声音媒介）
Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Many languages in the world today are both written and spoken.
Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. The natural or primary medium of human language is sound or some obviously reasons. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.
For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing. Linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have a role to play in linguistic communication.
The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds. 2. Phonetics
2.1 What is phonetics?
Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
There are three branches of phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics(发声语音学)：It is the study of the production of speech sounds.
Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）:It is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）:It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. 2.2 Organs of speech
The pharyngeal cavity（咽腔） —— the throat The oral cavity（口腔） —— the mouth The nasal cavity （鼻腔）—— the nose
The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx before it reaches any of the cavities.
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自考现代语言学讲义（word版）
