Chapter 3 Word formation( the three major process of word-formation) 1. Explain :
Word-formation rules:
Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.
?? 2. Root,stem and base. （词根、词干和词基） Analyze the word denationalized into root,base and stem
1)Root: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.
Free root: A root which can stand itself and can be used seperately to form a new word. A word consisting of one free root or one morhpeme is a simple word.e.g., man,talk,red,etc. A free root is a free morpheme.
Bound root: A root which cannot stand itself and cannot be used seperately,but as an attachment to be added to a word to form a new word. such as “tain,ceive”.Bound roots must be used together with other elements to form a word, e.g. “con+tain” = “contain”
2)Stem: A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in
a word with inflectional morphemes.e.g. 'worker' in 'workers' is a stem.
3)Base(词基）:A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added;it may also be defined as ''a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied.''This means that any root or stem can be termed a base.Such as,desirable is a base in undesirable. 4) The differences between root,stem,base:
A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,no further analysis.Such as nation is a root in international.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyszed,it sometimes could be a root. e.g. desire is a stem in desired.
A base is a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied,it could be a root or a stem.Such as internation is a base in international.
3.
compounding Composition or Compounding (27%) （复合法）
a single idea and functions as a separate lexical unit.Compounding is the most productive word-formation process in contemporary English.
Definition: Compounding consists of combining two or more words into one which now expresses
4. what are the relative criteria of a commound?
Orthographic criterion(书写标准) :Compounds are written in three ways,e.g. solid:airmail; hyphenated:air-conditioning; open: air force, air raid. Phonological criterion(语音标准) : Semantic criterion(语义标准)
5.
Affixation or Derivation (17.5%) （派生法或词缀法）@
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It is a process of forming new words by the addition of a word element,such as a prefix,suffix,or combining form,to an already existing word. e.g. :tele- --telephone, telescope 6.
What is the difference between prefixation and suffixation?
Prefixation: the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.
Suffixation --Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.
7. How are the marjor living prefixes classified?
1)''nagative ''否定prefixes:un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2)''reversative相反or privative否定的前缀''prefixes:un-,de-dis etc. 3)''pejorative变坏的, 轻蔑的''prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4)''degree or size ''prefixes:arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc. 5)''attitude态度''prefixes:co-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc. 6)''locative位置格''prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc. 7)''time and order ''prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. 8)''number ''prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
8. How can you form deverbal nouns,denominal nouns,deadjective verbs,and denominal adjectives
by suffixation?
Deverbal nouns:來自動詞的名詞
a. Denoting people -- -ant （assistant）, -ee (trainee), -ent (respondent), -er(-or)
b. Denoting action, result, process, state, ect. -- -age (linkage), -al (dismissal), -ance (attendance), -ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence (existence), -ing (savings), -ment
Denominal nouns:來自名詞的名詞 a.
Concrete -- -eer (engineer), -er (teenager), -ess (hostess), -ette (cigarette), -let (booklet)
b. Abstract -- -age (wastage), -dom (处于…状态)(officialdom), -ery (slavery), -ery (-ry), -hood (childhood), -ing (farming), - ism（…主义） (terrorism), -ship（状态） (sportsmanship)
Deadjective verbs:來自形容詞的動詞
-ity (popularity), -ness (happiness)
Denominal adjectives:來自名字的形容詞
ese (Chinese), -an (Australian), -ist (主义) (socialist)
Denominal suffixes -- -ed (wooded), -ful (successful), -ish (foolish), -less (priceless), -like (lady-like), -ly (friendly), -y (smoky)
-al(-ial, -ical) (cultural, residential), -esque (picturesque), -ic (economic), -ous(-eous, -ious) (coutageous)
-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ in meaning. Historic (important in history) historical (of history)
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Classic (great, memorable) classical (of Latin or Greek) Comic (of comedy) comical (funny)
Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving) Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)
Deverbal suffixes -- -able (-ible) (washable), -ive(-ative, -sive) (active, decisive) Adverb suffixes -- -ly (calmly), -ward(s) (homewards), -wise (clockwise)
Verb suffixes -- -ate(originate), -en (darken), -(i)fy (beautify), -ize (ise) (modernize)
9. Conversion or Functional shift (10.5%) （转成法或功能转换法）
It's a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the additon of an affix.
radio n. -- to radio v.
cry v. -- cry n.
10. what is the difference between conversion and suffixation?
Suffixation@: It's the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or a combining form to the
base,and usually changing the word-class of the base.e.g. boy n. + -ish -- boyish adj. boy n. + hood -- boyhood n.
11. In a convrsion pair, how can you determine which of the two is the base and which the derived
word?
Wirter---a deverbal noun with er suffix Spy –a deverbal noun without suffix Derivation by zero suffix
12. Illustrate the axiom,the actural grammatical classification of any word is depent upon its use
i.e. the second round was exciting(n) any round plate will do (adj)
some drivers round coners too rapidly(v.) the sound goes round and round
13. why is the conversion from noun to verb the most productive process of conversion?
1. first in contemporary English,there is tendencey of ―a preponderance (优势)of nouns over verbs. 2. there are only a few verb-forming affixes in english . they are be-,en-,ify,ize and en is now scarcely productive, while ize is the ohly highly productively one. More over, new verbs formed by other word-formation processes are also very few , except by back-fromation,which is, however , not a very productive word-formation process iteself. We might therefore more and more new verbs to be coined by means of conversion
14. what are the marjor semantic types(语义)under noun to verb conversion
1.to put in/on N: the nouns are usually locative nouns denoting a place ,a contianer or a special location
. the workers canned apples=the workers put apples in cans 2.to give N, to provide N
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They sheltered the orphans
认为不太重要, 不想往下写
15. why is ―the poor‖ an example of partial conversion
some adjectives are used as nouns when preceded by the definite article such as the poor,the wounded:yet these conveted nouns take only some of the features of noun, i.e. they do not take
plural(复数) and genitive（所有格）inflections, nor can they be preceded by determiners like a , this ,my .such adjective—noun conversion is partical
Chapter 3
Morphological structure of English words
Objectives: Discuss morphemes, their classification and identification;Explain the relationship between morphemes and word-formation Teaching focus:
Definition of morphemes Definition of allomorphs
Types of Types of morphemes free morpheme bound morpheme
Definitions of root, stem and base
On the morphemic level, Word, according to the number and type of morpheme they, can be classified into the below item
a. the simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme,such as man, work, kind
b. derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process, such words usually consist of a
free morpheme and one(or more than one)bound morpheme, such as fruitless,fruitful, unfruitful, fruitfulness,
c. compound wors: those which are composed of two or more free morpheme, e.g: deep structure,
specesuit,forget-me-not,maid-of-all-work,and jack of all trades.
1. Morpheme
What is a morpheme
It is the minimal meaningful unit of English language, possesses both sound and meaning. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.
语素是最小的有意义的单位.它是语言中最小的构词单位
2. Morph and allomorph The definition of morphs:
The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs'. 语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.
Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning. 形素是口语中最小的意义载体.
What is an allomorph
An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme.
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语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式. For example
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the same morpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.
3. Classifications of morphemes
Free vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring alone Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes applying to affixes only
Content / lexical vs. grammatical morpheme on a semantic and syntactic basis Free vs. bound morphemes 自由语素与粘着语素
Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.
自由语素是能独立运用的语素,它有完整的意义,在句中充当一个自由的语法单位.
E.g., man, wind, open, tour
Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.
粘着语素不能独立成词,只能依附于其他语素上以构成词或担当一定的语法功能. Free morphemes are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words.
自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作为构成新词的构词要素. Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes. 粘着语素包括词根(粘着词根)和词缀.
E.g., bound root: -dict-, -ced- affix: -ion, -ist, -ic
A multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg: -ced- 是词根,'接近', ante- 是前缀,'在…前', -ent 是后缀,'人,物',
Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes 派生语素与屈折语素
What are derivational and inflectional morphemes
Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme. In English derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.
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Chapter 3 Word formation
