Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 类别Types of homonyms 1）Perfect homonyms一词多义
2)Homographs（同形异义词）:同一个词发音不同意思不同words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词） 来源Origins of homonyms
1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long) 2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ) 3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)
同音同形异义词和多义词区别The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes 1)基本区别 Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. 2) etymology(词源)：H are from different sources. P are from the same source.
3) semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.
Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning . Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) : 1.Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）
2.relative synonyms（相对） (e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer)
Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :
1)Borrowing：(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase) 2)Dialects and regional English
3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.
4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand,
decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.
同义词辨析Discrimination of Synonyms
1.difference in denotation外延. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)
2.difference in connotation内涵. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar,homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：
ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )
3.difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)
反义关系Antonymy :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Types of Antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)
2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.
3)relative terms（关系反义词）： this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give） 反义关系的特点Some of the characteristics of antonyms
1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)
2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym 3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）
4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool) 反义词的使用The use of antonyms
1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.
2) To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)
3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.
上下义关系Hyponymy ：Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal
上义词和下义词Superordinate and Subordinate ：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea. 语义场Semantic Field
Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)
The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐， 妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变
词义变化的种类Types of Changes
1. Extension /generalization 2. Narrowing/ specialization
3. ioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]
4. Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的） sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]
5. Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
词义变化的原因Causes of Semantic Change
1.外部因素 1) Historical reason 2 )Class reason阶级原因 3) Psychological reason心理原因 2.内部原因： 1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier 2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast 3)analogy类推:
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境
Two types of context（语境的种类）
1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )
2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：
1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)
2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)
语境的作用The role of context 1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)
1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity
如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little 2.Indication of referents(限定所指)
如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context 3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)
1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy
6)hyponymy（上下义关系） 7)relevant details 8)word structure
Chapter 9 English Idioms 习语
定义Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements.
特点Characteristics of Idioms 1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）2.Structural stability 分类Classification of Idioms 1.n．
(white elephant累赘物 the salt of the earth 诚实正派人 apple of discourse 祸根)
2 .adj.（as poor as a church mouse一贫如洗 cut and dried 确定的 wide of the mark不确定的） 3 .v.（bite the hands that feeds忘恩负义 keep the pot boiling维持生活 give sb. the bag解雇） 4. adv.(tooth and nail 拼命 through thick and thin不畏艰辛 in nothing flat立刻） 5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（one swallow does not make a summer独木不成林） 使用Use of idioms
1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：
colloquialisms（俗语）big wheel重要的人
slang （俚语）hit the sack: 上床 in the soup: 有麻烦 literary expressions（书面表达）bear witness to 证明
2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)
1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）： （1）alliteration头韵法：part and parcel （2）rhyme尾韵法：toil and moil 2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）
（1）reiteration 同义词并举 [scream and shout] [pick and choose] （2）repetition 重复[out and out]
（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置 [here and there] [day and night] 3.figures of speech（修辞格）
（1）simile明喻 as proud as peacock像孔雀一样骄傲 /as mute as a fish 默不作声 （2）metaphor暗喻 a white elephant / a black sheep
（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen / from cradle to grave （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread （5）Personification拟人法 actions speak louder than words （6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)
（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of trouble / a flood of tears
来源Origins of idioms: 1.literal works:
Screw one’s courage鼓起勇气 To the manner born天生 Man Friday 忠仆，得力助手 Brevity is the soul of the wit简洁是智慧的灵魂 Live not to eat, but eat to live. 2.Bible
Judas’s kill 出卖朋友 Much cry and little wool空叫喊
Turn the other cheek忍受暴力 Spare the rod and spoil the child不打不成材 3.fables
Bell the cat替别人冒风险 Cat’s paw被别人利用的人 4.mythology
Pandora’s box灾祸之源 Dead sea fruit华而不实 The heel of the Achilles唯一要害 5.animal metaphor
As wise as owls猫头鹰的聪明As quite as mouse老鼠的安静As timid as rabbit兔子的胆小 Bury one’s head in the sand逃避现实 Come out of the cocoon开始与人交往 6.daily life
On the rocks濒临灭绝 Bead of roses舒适的生活 Turn on a new leaf改头换面 Hear around the grapervine道听途说 Beat around the bush旁敲侧击 Spill the beans泄露秘密
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
