English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
Word: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence
Sound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”
Sound and form:不统一的四个原因
（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter
to represent each other
（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes
（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary 词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary 词语分类Classification of English Words：
1. By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary 基本词汇的特征:
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability
3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）
没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）
（5）Dialectal words (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms 2. By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词 3. By origin: native words & borrowed words
Native words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use
Borrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)
1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON)) 2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow
3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语 long time no see / tofu
4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary
印欧语系The Indo-European Language Family
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）
The Eastern set:
(1)The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc. (2)The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc. (3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian. (4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western set:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish,
portuguese,Romanian) etc.
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc. (8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.
三个发展阶段The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:
1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000): was I high inflected language.
2 Middle English (1150-1500): retaines much fewer inflections （1066法国开始入侵英国） 3 Modern English (1500-up to now) 始于印刷术
英语外来元素Foreign elements：
Latin （war and agriculture/罗马人把基督教带到英国church terms） Greek (science/sports/medicine/politics)
French(government and administration/feudalism/religion/morality)
Scandinavian 纳维亚人（nouns、pronouns/birds/sea）
Minor elements：Italian、German、Dutch、Spanish and Portuguese、Celtic
词汇的发展模式Modes of Vocabulary Development:
1) 创造新词creation：the formation of new words by using the existing. 2) 旧词新义semantic change: create many more new useages of the words. 3) 借用外来词 borrowing: constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
词素Morpheme: the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
词素变体Allomorph: is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaning 词素的分类Type of Morpheme
（1）Free Morphemes: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent). （2）Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.
Free Morpheme =free root Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational派生 suffix affix
inflectional 曲折
判断题：
affix must be bound morphemes√
不是所有的词都需要自由词素√ per-ceive trans-late re-mit 大部分词语是派生的√
词根和词干
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.
Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)
1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.
（1）Prefixation：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.
1)Negative prefixes(否定): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey) 2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)
3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义）：mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behavior) 4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-, mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- 6)Locative prefixes（方位）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail) 8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-， 9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman (2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes 2.Compounding复合法 （also called composition）
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems
Compounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid) Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）
（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot （2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head （3）verb compounds ： e.g. house + keep = housekeep
3.Conversion转类法
Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）
4.Blending拼缀法
Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN
5.Clipping截短法
Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains
instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：
1).Front clippings (phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings (dorm from dormitory)
3).Front and back clippings (flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings (pop from popular music) 6.Acronymy首字母缩写法
Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation) （2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）: TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) 7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词） (greed from greedy)
8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法): e.g.: watt（瓦特，电功率单位）
Chapter 5 Word Meaning
Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.
Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.
Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.
2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect. 3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)
4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather 词义的类别Types of meaning
1. 语法意义Grammatical Meaning: indicates the grammatical concept or relationships 2. 词汇意义Lexical Meaning ：Conceptual meaning and associative meaning
4types: Connotative 、Stylistic 、Affective（appreciative & pejorative）、 Collocative
Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义场）
多义关系的两种研究方法Two approached to polysemy
1. 历时方法diachronic approach ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.
2. 共时方法synchronic approach : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.
词义的两种发展类型Two processes of development
1. radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre
and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck) 2. 连锁型concatenation:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection
between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)
3. In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In
concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.
4. They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.
Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳
