Where Food Waste Happens
[C] In 2010,the Institution of Mechanical Engineers identified three principal emerging population
groups across the world, based on characteristics associated with their current and projected stage of economic development.
? Fully developed, mature, post-industrial societies, such as those in Europe, characterised by stable or declining populations which are increasing in age.
? Late-stage developing nations that are currently industrialising rapidly, for example China, which will experience declining rates of population growth, coupled with increasing affluence (富裕）and age profile.
? Newly developing countries that are beginning to industrialise, primarily in Africa, with high to very high population growth rates, and characterised by a predominantly young age profile.
[D] Each group over the coming decades will need to address different issues surrounding food
production, storage and transportation, as well as consumer expectations, if we are to continue to feed all our people.
[E] In less-developed countries, such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia, wastage
tends to occur primarily at the farmer-producer end of the supply chain. Inefficient harvesting, inadequate local transportation and poor infrastructure (基础设施)mean that produce is frequently handled inappropriately and stored under unsuitable farm site conditions.
[F] In mature, fully developed countries such as the UK, more-efficient farming practices and
better transport, storage and processing facilities ensure that a larger proportion of the food produced reaches markets and consumers. However, characteristics associated with modern consumer culture mean produce is often wasted through retail and customer behaviour.
[G] Major supermarkets, in meeting consumer expectations, will often reject entire crops of
perfectly edible fruit and vegetables at the farm because they do not meet exacting marketing standards for their physical characteristics, such as size and appearance.
[H] Of the produce that does appear in the supermarket, commonly used sales promotions
frequently encourage customers to purchase excessive quantities which, in the case of perishable foodstuffs, inevitably generate wastage in the home. Overall between 30% and 50% of what has been bought in developed countries is thrown away by the purchaser. Better Use of Our Finite Resources
[I] Wasting food means losing not only life-supporting nutrition but also precious resources,
including land, water and energy. As a global society, therefore, tackling food waste will help contribute towards addressing a number of key resource issues.
[J] Land Usage: Over the last five decades, improved farming techniques and technologies have
helped to significantly increase crop yields along with a 12% expansion of farmed land use. However, a further increase in farming area without impacting unfavourably on what remains of the world's natural ecosystems appears unlikely. The challenge is that an increase in animal-based production will require more land and resources, as livestock (牲畜)farming demands extensive land use.
[K] Water Usage: Over the past century, human use of fresh water has increased at more than
double the rate of population growth. Currently about 3.8 trillion m3of water is used by hu-mans per year. About 70% of this is consumed by the global agriculture sector, and the level of use will continue to rise over the coming decades.
[L] Better irrigation can dramatically improve crop yield and about 40% of the world's food
supply is currently derived from irrigated land. However, water used in irrigation is often sourcedunsustainably.In processing foods after the agricultural stage, there are large additional uses of water that need to be tackled in a world of growing demand. This is particularly crucial inthe case of meat production, where beef uses about 50 times more water than vegetables. In the future, more effective washing techniques, management procedures, and recycling and purification of water will be needed to reduce wastage.
[M]Energy Usage: Energy is an essential resource across the entire food production cycle, with
estimates showing an average of 7-10 calories of input being required in the production of one calorie of food. This varies dramatically depending on crop, from three calories for plant crops to 35 calories in the production of beef. Since much of this energy comes from the utilisation of fossil fuels, wastage of food potentially contributes to unnecessary global warming as well as inefficient resource utilisation.
[N] In the modem industrialised agricultural process—which developing nations are
movingtowards in order to increase future yields—energy usage in the making and application of fertilisersand pesticides represents the single biggest component. Wheat production takes 50% of its energy input for these two items alone. Indeed, on a global scale, fertilisermanufacturing consumes about 3-5% of the world's annual natural gas supply. With production anticipated to increase by 25% between now and 2030, sustainable energy sourcing will become an increasingly major issue. Energy to power machinery, both on the farm and in the storage and processing facilities, adds to the energy total, which currently represents about 3.1% of annual global energy consumption. Recommendations
[O] Rising population combined with improved nutrition standards and shifting dietary
preferences will exert pressure for increases in global food supply. Engineers, scientists and agriculturalists have the knowledge, tools and systems that will assist in achieving productivity increases. However, pressure will grow on finite resources of land, energy and water. The potential to provide 60-100% more food by simply eliminating losses, while simultaneously freeing up land, energy and water resources for other uses, is an opportunity that should not be ignored. In order to begin tackling the challenge, the Institution recommends that:
?The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation work with the international engineering community to ensure governments of developed nations put in place programmes that transferengineering knowledge, design know-how, and suitable technology to newly developing countries. This will help improve produce handling in the harvest, and immediate post-harvest stages of food production.
? Governments of rapidly developing countries incorporate waste minimisation thinking into the transport infrastructure and storage facilities currently being planned, engineered and built.
? Governments in developed nations devise and implement policy that changes consumer expectations. These should discourage retailers from wasteful practices that lead to the rejection of food on the basis of cosmetic characteristics, and losses in the home due to excessive purchasing by consumers. 注意：此部分试题请在答题卡2上作答。
46. Elimination of waste alone can potentially provide over sixty percent more food for the growing world population.
47. The production and application of fertilisers and pesticides account for the largest part of energy use in the modernindustrialised agricultural process.
48. Consumers in developed countries throw away nearly half of their food purchases because they tend to buy in excessive quantities.
49. It is recommended that engineering knowledge and suitable technology in developed countries be introduced to developing countries to improve produce handling in the harvest.
50. The predicted global population growth means that ways have to be found to produce more food with finite resources.
51. A further expansion of farming area will adversely impact on the world's natural ecosystems. 52. Perfectly eatable fruit and vegetable crops often fail to reach supermarkets due to their size or physical appearance.
53. Poor practices in harvesting, storage and transportation have resulted in a waste of much of the food we produce and thus a waste of land and resources.
54. Food waste in less-developed countries happens mainly at the producers' end. 55. Beef consumes far more water to produce than vegetables.
Section C
Directions:There are 2 passages in this section. Each passage is followed by some questions or
unfinished statements. For each of them there are four choices marked A), B), C) and D). You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.
Passage One
Questions 56 to 60 are based on the following passage.
Call it the “learning paradox”, the more you struggle and even fail while you?re trying to learn new information, the better you?re likely to recall and apply that information later.
The learning paradox is at the heart of “productive failure”.a phenomenon identified by researcher Manu Kapur. Kapur points outthat while the model adopted by many teachers when introducing students to new knowledge―providing lots of structure and guidance early on, until the students show that they can do it on their own―makes intuitive sense, it may not be the best way to promote learning. Rather, it?s better to let the learners wrestle (较劲）with the material ontheir own for a while, refraining from giving them any assistance at the start. In a paper published recently, Kapur applied the principle of productive failure to mathematical problem solving in three schools.
With one group of students, the teacher provided strong “scaffolding”―instructional support—and feedback. With the teacher?s help, these pupils were able to find the answers to their set of problems. Meanwhile, a second group was directed to solve the same problems by collaborating with one another, without any prompts from their instructor. These students weren?t able to complete the problems correctly. But in the course of trying to do so, they generated a lot of ideas about the nature of the problems and about what potential solutions would look like. And when the two groups were tested on what they?d learned, the second group “significantly outperformed” the first. The apparent struggles of the floundering (挣扎的）grouphave what Kapurcalls a “hidden efficacy”: they lead people to understand the deep structure of problems, not
simply their correct solutions. When these students encounter a new problem of the same type on a test, they?re able to transfer the knowledge they?ve gathered more effectively than those who were the passive recipients of someone else?s expertise.
In the real world, problems rarely come neatly packaged, so being able to discern their deep structure is key. But, Kapur notes, none of us like to fail, no matter how often Silicon Valley entrepreneurs praise the beneficial effects of an idea that fails or a start-up company that crashesand burns. So we need to “design for productive failure” by building it into the learning process. Kapur has identified three conditions that promote this kind of beneficial struggle. First, choose problems to work on that“challenge but do not frustrate”. Second, provide learners with opportunities to explain and elaborate on what they?re doing. Third, give learners the chance to compare and contrast good and bad solutions to the problems. And to those students who protest this tough-love teaching style: you'll thank me later. 注意：此部分试题请在答题卡2上作答。
56. Why does the author call the learning process a paradox? A) Pains do not necessarily lead to gains. B) What is learned is rarely applicable in life. C) Failure more often than not breeds success. D) The more is taught, the less is learnt. 57. What does Kapur disapprove of in teaching?
A) Asking students to find and solve problems on their own. B) Developing students? ability to apply what they learn. C) Giving students detailed guidance and instruction. D) Allowing students a free hand in problem solving.
58. What do people tend to think of providing strong “scaffolding” in teaching? A) It will make teaching easier. C) It can motivate average students. B) It is a sensible way of teaching. D) It will enhance students? confidence. 59. What kind of problem should be given to students to solve according to Kapur? A) It should be able to encourage collaborative learning. B) It should be easy enough so as not to frustrate students. C) It should be solvable by average students with ease. D) It should be difficult enough but still within their reach.
60. What can be expected of “this tough-love teaching style” (Lines 8-9, Para. 5)? A) Students will be grateful in the long run. B) Teachers will meet with a lot of resistance. C) Parents will think it too harsh on their kids. D) It may not be able to yield the desired results.
Passage Two
Questions 61 to 65 are based on the following passage.
Vernon Bowman, a 75-year-old farmer from rural Indiana, did something that got him sued. He planted soybeans (大豆）sold as cattle feed. But Monsanto, the agricultural giant, insists it has a patent on the kind of genetically modified seeds Bowman used―and that the patent continues to all of the progeny (后代)of those seeds.
Have we really gotten to the point that planting a seed can lead to a high-stakes Supreme Court patent lawsuit? We have, and that case is Bowman vs. Monsanto, which is being argued on Tuesday. Monsanto?s critics have attacked the company for its “merciless legal battles against small farmers,” and they are hoping this will be the case that puts it in its place. They are also hoping the court?s ruling will rein in patent law, which is increasingly being used to claim new life forms as private property.
Monsanto and its supporters, not surprisingly, see the case very differently. They argue that when a company like Monsanto goes to great expense to create a valuable new genetically modi-fied seed, it must be able to protect its property interests. If farmers like Bowman are able to use these seeds without paying the designated fee, it will remove the incentives for companies like Monsanto to innovate.
Monsanto accused Bowman of patent infringement and won an $84,456 damage award. Rather than pay up or work out a settlement, Bowman decided to appeal—all the way to the Supreme Court. He said “Monsanto should not be able, just because they?ve got billions of dollars to spend on legal fees, to try to terrify farmers into obeying their agreements by massive force and threats.”
The central issue in the case is whether patent rights to living things extend to the progeny ofthose things. Monsanto argues that itspatents extend to later generations. But Bowman's supporters argue that Monsanto is trying to expand the scope of patents in ways that would enrich big corporations and hurt small farmers. They say that if Monsanto wins, the impact will extend far beyond agriculture―locking up property rights in an array of important areas. Knowledge Ecology International contends that the Supreme Court?s ruling could have “profound effects” on other biotech industries.
If this were a Hollywood movie, the courageous old Indiana farmer would beat the profit-minded corporation before the credits rolled. But this is a real-life argument before a Supreme Court that has a well-earned reputation for looking out for the interests of large corporations. This case gives the court an opportunity to rein in the growing use of patents to protect genetically engineered crops and other life forms―but the court may well use it to give this trend a powerful new endorsement. 注意：此部分试题请在答题卡2上作答 61. Why did Vernon Bowman get sued?
A) He used genetically modified seeds to feed his cattle. B) He planted soybeans without paying for the patent.
C) He made a profit out of Monsanto?s commercial secrets. D) He obtained Monsanto?s patented seeds by illegal means. 62. What are Monsanto?s critics hoping the Supreme Court will do? A) Allow small farmers to grow genetically modified soybeans. B) Punish Monsanto for infringing on small farmers' interests.
C) Rule against Monsanto?s excessive extension of its patent rights. D) Abolish the patent law concerning genetically engineered seeds. 63. What is the argument of Monsanto and its supporters?
A) Patent rights should be protected to encourage innovation. B) Bowman cannot plant the seeds without Monsanto's consent. C) Monsanto has the right to recover the costs of its patented seeds.
2013年12月六级真题及答案（共三套）
