over their radio that the peace were to be discontinued．
2) 表示人品的形容词的常用结构
“It is十表示人品的形容词十of十代词十不定式”，这种结构用来表示对某人所做的事的一种赞赏，或者厌恶。用在这种结构中的形容词有：
brave，clever，considerate，cruel，foolish，good，kind，nice，rude，silly，stupid，thoughtful，wicked，wise，wrong，etc．
【例句】
It was very kind of you to lend him some money to escape the bankruptcy． It’s considerate of you to meet me at the airport. 3) 易误作副词的形容词
通常形容词加后缀-ly可变为副词；但有些带-ly词尾的词却是形容词，特别容易引起误用，如：
lovely（可爱的） likely（很可能的） deadly（致命的） earthly（现世的） leisurely（有闲的） weekly（每周一次的） yearly（每年一次的） manly（丈夫气概的） brotherly（友爱的） friendly（友好的）， badly (糟糕的) 【例句】
As I didn’t have any experience，I was likely to have problems.
“Electronic World” is a weekly magazine，we are its permanent subscriber．
二、副词
1. 副词通常在句中作状语，修饰动词，形容词，副词，或整个句子。 【例句】
I usually take sandwiches for my lunch, but now I go to a café. (修饰动词) He is very honest. (修饰形容词) She sings quite well. (修饰副词)
Personally, I didn’t approve of the idea. (修饰整个句子) 2. 副词的位置
1) 地点副词与态度副词
地点副词如：abroad，away，downstairs，everywhere，outside，around，here, there，below，anywhere，somewhere, 态度副词如；kindly，badly，well，quickly，distinctly, intentionally通常应放在宾语之后，若无宾语，应放在该动词之后。但态度副词还常可放在系动词之后，行为动词之前。
【例句】
I remember having seen him somewhere. She didn’t do it intentionally. 2) 时间副词 时间副词, 如：already, before, finally, immediately, lately, shortly, presently, then, yet, still, now, soon, recently可以放在句子的前或后。 但是yet，before放在句末。
【例句】
Finally, he returned home penniless. I have never seen him before. 3）频度副词
频度副词如：sometimes，seldom，rarely，always，ever，usually，often，never，constantly，frequently，occasionally，ordinarily通常应放在动词前, 系动词与助动词之后。Ever与never有时可放在助动词之前, 以示强调。 频度副词 frequently，generally，normally，occasionally，ordinarily，usually，和sometimes在表示强调和对比时, 可放在句首。
【例句】
We must always bear this in mind.
She is seldom ill. And so she has never been late.
Ordinarily，tariff duties are placed on commodities according to their value． 4) 程度副词 程度副词，如：almost，nearly，quite，Just，too，fairly，extremely， completely， considerably, deeply， partly, terribly，definitely，greatly，hardly可用来修饰一个形容词，另一个副词；它通常放在被它修饰的那个词的前面。
【例句】
He stumbled and almost fell. I am awfully sorry for it.
5) 程度副词与额度副词之间的位置
当程度与频度副词同时在句中出现时，通常是程度副词修饰频度副词。 【例句】
They nearly always spend their holidays in the mountain.
The seats in the second plane had almost all been completely filled.
三、形容词与副词的比较级: 1. 比较级的构成:
单音节形容词和副词通常都以加-er和-est的方式构成比较级和最高级： 但在加词尾时要注意： 1）一般加-er，-est
tall taller tallest kind kinder kindest great greater greatest 2）以e结尾的词，只加-r和-st：
large larger largest wise wiser wisest fine finer finest 3）“辅音字母十元音字母十辅音字母”构成的词，末尾字母要双写，再加-er和-est： hot hotter hottest thin thinner thinnest flat flatter flattest big bigger biggest 4) 下面双音节词以加词尾方式构成比较级及最高级：
以y结尾的词，先变 y为 i，再加词尾，如 happy， happier，happiest：
这类动词有：happy, angry, dingy, naughty, likely, lucky, misty, stormy, lovely, kingly, timely, beastly.
5) 上面未提到的双音节词和更多音节的词，通常多加 more和 most：
foolish more foolish most foolish active more active most active charming more charming most charming beautiful more beautiful most beautiful affable more affable most affable digestible more digestible most digestible
7) 但加-er和-est的双音节形容词，在加上un- 这样否定前缀时，仍保持加-er，-est的方式：
untidy untidier untidiest
unlucky unluckier unluckiest unhappy unhappier unhappiest 8) 现在分词和过去分词（起形容词作用的），不管有多少音节，都加more和 most。eg: tired →more tired
2. 形容词与副词比较结构的用法 1) 同级比较 （1）“as十形容词或副词的原级十as”
形容词与副词的同级比较，其肯定式要用“as十形容词或副词的原级十as”；而否定形式要用“not as（so）形容词或副词的原级十as,” 用于表示两个人或事物之间的差别。句子中两个as作用不同，前一个as是副词，含“如此”的意思；后一个as是连词，表示“比”或“如同”的意义。
【例句】
We have accomplished as much in the past three years as would have been taken ten years in the past.
He didn’t do so much preparation for the exam as I did. John doesn’t work so hard as Henry．
（2) 当同级比较的形容词是same时，前面一般不用as，而要用the, “the same as。” 【例句】
He said the same at the meeting as he had promised me. （3) 使用原级比较应注意的问题 ? 当同级比较的形容词跟单数名词连用时，要注意不定冠词的位置: as +形容词+a+单数可数
名词+ as 【例句】
Exercising is as good a way as any to lose unwanted weight. ? 同级比较前也常用状语just，almost，twice，three times等修饰。状语应放在第一个as
或so之前。 【例句】
Last year, Matt earned twice as much as his brother, who has a better position. ? 同级比较结构后面那个 as是个连接词，后面应接省略了某些成分的状语从句。
【例句】
She is in as good health now as (she was) last year. We’ll give you as much help as we can(give you). 2) 比较级句型
比较级句型用于表示两个人或事物之间的差别。
（1) 主语十谓语十形容词／副词比较级十（名词）＋than十被比对象 或：主语十谓语十more／less十形容词／副词十than十被比对象 【例题】
Facts speak louder than eloquence．
The new edition of the dictionary is more expensive than the old one．
（2) 比较级程度状语的位置要放在比较级结构前, 常用的比较级程度状语有much, no, hardly, far, a lot, a little, still, ever, three times, probably, 40 percent 等
【例句】
Film directors can take far greater liberties in dealing withconcepts of time and space than space directors can.
It has been calculated that the Earth’s circumference around the equator is over forty miles longer than that around the two poles.
（3) 下面这种句型的意思是“不比…多”或“不少于…”：
主语十谓语十no more／less十形容词／副词比较级十than十被比对象 是表达“相等”或“近似”的一种说法。
【例句】
She is no less diligent than her classmates． （4) 否定词十比较级
该句型的原意思是“再没有…比…更…”，也表示“最”的概念。 【例句】
There is nothing in the world more potent and more impotent than words． （can/could not be/do more） I couldn’t thank you more.
I couldn’t expect better than this.
（5) the more …, the more.: 表示“越…，越…” 【例句】
The harder you work, the greater progress you will make． The hotter the weather is, the more tired we feel.
The more he became wealthy, the less he felt satisfied. （6) 少数形容词表示比较时, 用to不用连词than: superior（优于），inferior（低于），senior（年长于），junior（年幼于）等词之后用 to，而不用than.
【例句】
His strength is superior to mine． My knowledge is inferior to his．
（7）比较级十名词十关系代词型的 “than”： 【例句】
He has a better car than（= than the car which）he had before．（than在这里起关系代词的作用）
He has now better cars than（= than those that）belonged to him before． He wants a more beautiful wife than（= than the wife whom）he married． （8）Than= than what的情况： 【例句】
She is older than（= than what）is supposed．
The situation is more serious than（= than what） is expected． He is more cunning than we believe.（= than what we believe.） He works harder than I expected． （9) 主体词（即形容词后的名词）（如果读者清楚）可以省略或用 one 或ones代替。 【例句】
The bigger boys stood and the smaller（boys）were seated。 The more fortunate people should help the less fortunate (people).
The larger apples he gave to John，and the smaller ones he gave to Mary. （10) more and more“越来越……”： 【例句】
The situation grew worse and worse.
She looks more and more beautiful every year.
She looks more beautiful and more intelligent.(= more and more beautiful and more and more intelligent).
(11) more than +形容词或动词, 表示“最”。 【例句】
He is more than honest.
I am more than obliged to you.
3) 最高级句型：the十形容词／副词最高级十（名词）十范围词
（1）最高级句型用于表示某一事物在一定范围内最突出或某一动作达到最高程度的句子,
一般要有一个表示范围的结构，它可以是: 单词、短语、从句、或“the十形容词／副词最高级十（名词）十范围词”
【例句】
It is the best book imaginable（or available， conceivable，possible，known）．（形容词） Jane is the tallest girl in the department of public relations．(介词短语) Of all my students, Beth works hardest．(介词短语) I am driving the best car that I can get. （从句）
? 提示：引导范围的介词，如果为同一范畴，用of, 否则用in。
（2）作定语用的形容词最高级前如没有定冠词the，通常表示“非常”，“极端”，“特别”等意思。
【例句】
He is a most intelligent student. He is a man of greatest ability.
He received my gift with warmest thanks.
第十一章 倒装
倒装结构主要用于某些特定的句型和强调某个句子成分。倒装语序有两类：一种是将谓语的一部分助动词提到主语之前，没有助动词，则加do，does或did，称为“不完全倒装”或“部分倒装”；另一种是将整个谓语动词部分全部提到主语之前，不用助动词，称为“完全倒装”或“全部倒装”。针对全真考题，我们将详细说明以下几种倒装形式。
1. 为避免句子部分内容重复，英语中常用倒装句，即：so (neither，nor)+be动词 (助动词，情态动词)+主语。表示“前面所说情况也适用于另一人(或东西)”的句子，neither，nor为否定句。【例句】
My father is an engineer; so is my husband.
Jane didn’t attend my class yesterday; nor did Tom.
Society has changed and so have the people in it. 社会变了，人也跟着变了。 We do not believe their nice word and nor are we intimidated by their bluster. 我们既不相信他们的甜言蜜语，也不怕他们的恐吓威胁。 【实例】
The organization had broken no rules, but ______ had it acted responsibly. A. neither B. so C. either D. both (1996.1) 该组织虽没有违反规定，却也不够负责。答案A ? 注：如表示赞同别人的陈述，so后面的部分不倒装。
“Jim is a good-swimmer.” “So he is, and so is Dick.”
2. 具有否定意义的词或短语置于句首时，句子一般部分倒装，即将be动词、助动词或情态动词提到主语，用于进行“对比”。这类词或短语包括：not，never，nowhere，seldom，hardly，rarely，little，scarcely，by no means, under no circumstances, in no way, at no time, in no way，on no account，at no point，in no case, no sooner… (than), hardly... (when), not only... (but also), not until，in vain，not once，still less等，只要是放在句首，句子就要倒装。 【例句】
Never has my brother been abroad before.
Hardly had I sat down when I heard someone knocking at the door.
No sooner had he returned than he bought a fine house and went to live there.
Rarely could he have been faced with so difficult a choice. 他很少碰到过这样两难的局面。 Never before has our country been as united as it is today. 今天我们的国家空前团结。
Hardly／Scarcely had he finished when someone rose to refute his points。他还没说完，就有人
起来驳斥他的论点。
No sooner had he arrived there than he fell ill. 他一到那儿就病了。
Under no circumstances should we do anything that will benefit ourselves but harm the interests of the state. 任何情况下，我们不应当做只对自己有利而损害国家利益的事情。 【实例】
We have been told that under no circumstances ______ the telephone in the office for personal affairs.
A. may we use B. we may use C. we could use D. did we use (1999. 6)
我们被告之在任何情况下都不能用办公室的电话办私事。答案A ? 注：如果句首的否定词修饰主语，是主语的一部分，则句子不用倒装。
Scarcely a drop of rain fell last month.
3. as引导的让步状语从句，意思为“虽然……”、“尽管……”常用倒装。as相当于though，常用于名词（形容词、副词、动词）+ as+ 主语+ be或其他动词（名词单数省去冠词）。 【例句】
Child as he is, he knows a great deal。
Prominent as he is in his field, he remains easy-going. Wealthy as he is, I don’t envy him.
Much as 1 would like to help, I have other work I must do.虽然我很愿意提供帮助，但是我有其他工作一定得我去做。
4. 当only，so，often，well，many a time，now and again等表示程度、方式或频率的副词置于句首时，句子一般部分倒装。 【例句】
Only in this way can we accomplish it on time.
So great was the destruction that the south took decades to recovery. Often does he warn us not to touch the poisonous chemical?
Well do I remember the stories he told us about our beloved Premier Zhou 我清楚记得他给我们讲的敬爱的周总理的事迹。
Many a time has John given me good advice。约翰多次给我提了中肯的意见。 【实例】
Only under special circumstances ______ to take make-up tests. A. are freshmen permitted B. freshmen are permitted C. permitted are freshmen D. are permitted freshmen (1997.6) 大学一年级学生只有在特殊情况下才被允许补考。答案A ? 注：only用来说明主语，则主谓语不倒装。
Only you could do a thing like that。只有你才能干那样的事。
5. “so/ such +形容词／副词”位子句首的半倒装：
在带有”so/ such…that…”(如此……以致……)的复合句中，为了强调可把”so/ such…”置于句首，此时主句的主谓语要半倒装。
【例句】
So fast does light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed. 光这么快，我们很难想象它的速度。
So busy is he that he has no time to write a letter. 他忙得没有时间写信。
So loudly did he speak that even people in the next room could hear him. 他讲话声音如此之大
连隔壁房间里的人都听得见。
So great was the honor that the winner of the foot race gave his name to the year of his victory. 赛跑手获胜的荣誉非常之高，他的名字用来命名他获胜的年份。
Such a noise did he make that his roommate told him to be quiet. 他发出那么大的噪音，他的室友让他安静。
To such an extent do parents love their son that they have tried to satisfy every demand of his. 父母如此爱儿子以致于他们会尽量满足他的每一个要求。
6. 反意问句后半部的半倒装：
反意问句前半部若为肯定句，则后半部的疑问部分为否定半倒装；若前半部为否定句，则后半部为肯定半倒装。
【例句】
You owe me $20, don’t you? 你欠我二十美元吧?
You are from New York, aren’t you? 你是纽约人，是吗? John speaks Chinese, doesn’t he? 约翰会说中文，是吧? You have been to England, haven’t you? 你去过英国，是吗? You don’t smoke, do you? 你不吸烟吧? You aren’t tired, are you? 你不累吧?
Jane doesn’t know Japanese, does she? 珍妮不懂日文，是吗?
You haven’t heard from him, have you? 你还没有收到他的信，是吗? 7. 为了强调或保持句子平衡的全倒装：
当一个句子没有宾语而主语又比较长，常可把状语或表语提前到句首，同时谓语全部放到主语前，形成全倒装。这样做的目的是使句子保持平衡避免头重脚轻，同时也给句首的状语，表语以一定的强调。 【例句】
Under a tree was sitting one of the biggest men I have ever seen. 树下坐着一个人，我从来没有见过象他这么大的个子。
On the bed lay a beautiful young girl。床上躺着一位年轻貌美的女子。
In these waters are found various mineral elements that are beneficial to our health. 这些水源中存在有对人体健康有益的各种矿物元素
Thus began the plunder of the country’s wealth. 就这样开始了对该国财富的掠夺。 Among them was a soldier who was wounded in the stomach.
Hidden under ground is a wealth of gold, silver, copper and lead. 地下埋藏着大量的金、银、铜和铅。
Running across it is a stream named Peach Brook.穿过这里有一条小溪叫桃花溪。
8. 为了叙述生动的全倒装：
写一个情景时，为了使之形象生动，我们把句中的副词如：up，down，off，away，in，out，及bang等拟声词置于句首时，句子一般全部倒装。句中主语必须是名词，而谓语则是不及物动词。
【例句】
Up went the rocket. 火箭轰地上了天。
Down came the hammer and out flew the sparks. 哨地一声槌子打了下来，火星飞散出去。 Away hurried the hunters. 猎人们匆忙走了。 Away flew the bird.
Out rushed the boys. 小男孩们呼地冲了出去。 Bang came another shot. 砰的又是一枪。 Bang went the fireworks. Click-click went the weaving loom. 织机卡嗒卡嗒地响着。 ? 注：但如果句中主语是代词，则主谓语不倒装：
Away they hurried. 他们匆忙地走了。 Out he rushed. 他冲了出去。
Back he went again. 他又回去了。
9. 当there，here，then，now等副词置于句首，且谓语动词为come，go，be，follow等动词时，句子—般全部倒装。此类倒装句旨在引起别人注意。此时主语是名词，如果主语是代词，则句子不倒装。
【例句】
Here comes the bus. 公共汽车来了。 Here is a letter for you. 这是你的信。 There goes the bell. 铃响了。
There is a man at the door. 门口有个男子。
Then came wind, hail and frost. 接着是风灾、雹灾和霜冻。
Then followed a series of battles against the invaders. 接着是抵抗入侵者的一系列战役。
10. 比较状语从句中为平衡而倒装
He is younger than are the other students in his class. 他比班里其他同学年龄小。
He travelled a great deal as did most of his friends. 他去过许多地方旅行，他的大多数朋友也是。
第十二章 强调
1. 一般强调结构
强调结构为：It is (was) … that…。句型中的that可用于各种场合。它可以用来强调句中的某些成分，如主语（从句）、宾语（从句）、状语（从句）等。如强调主语或宾语，则that可用who (指人)，whom 或which （指物）来代替；如强调状语，则不能用when, where等代替，只能用that，注意强调结构不能用来强调谓语动词和表语。
【例句】
It was my uncle that (who) sent me the parcel.
It is the article that (which) they discussed last week.
It was because he was too careless that he broke all the glasses. It is in this room that I was born 30 years ago. 【实例】
______ she first heard of the man referred to as a specialist. A. That was from Stephen B. It was Stephen whom C. It was from Stephen that D. It was Stephen that (1990.1 ) 她是从斯蒂芬那儿第一次听说那个被称为专家的人。答案C
2. 谓语动词前用do，does，did表示强调
在肯定句中，可以用do强调谓语部分，可译为“务必”、“一定”、“真的”、“确实”等。这时动词要用原形。
【例句】
He does like to eat noodles.
She did send me a postcard as I expected.
3. 强调词very用来加强名词的语气
1）very用在the，this，that，my，your，his等和名词之间，含义为“正(是)”，“就是”，“即使”，“仅仅”。
【例句】
This is the very dictionary we want. 这正是我们所要的词典。 He knows our very thoughts. 他知道我们的真实想法。
2）very可用来修饰作名词用的many，few，little等，含义为“非常的”，“极”。 【例句】
Very few believe what he says. 几乎没有人相信他的话。 Give me only a very little. 给我极少一点就行了。
3）my (your, his等) very, own表示“绝对是某人自己”的意思。 【例句】
The fault is your very own. 这完全是你的过错。
I finally have my very own room; I do not have to share it. 我终于有了自己的房间，不必和别人合用一间屋子了。
4. 其他
1) much，still，a lot/lots，a little，far / by far，a good / great deal常用来强调比较级，much和by far还可以强调最高级。 【例句】
This film is much better than that one. Tom is by far the tallest in our class.
John spent a little more than ten dollars on this book.
2) 含有“究竟”意义的词组the devil, the hell, the mischief, on earth, under the sun 用来加强疑问句。 【例句】
Who the devil is he?
Where under the sun did he go? 他究竟去哪了？
3) 强调句中可以用might，must have been等表示“推断”“可能”之类的词，这样强调程度有所减弱。 【例句】
It might be tomorrow that he should come. 可能明天他会来。
第十三章 主谓一致
一致指句子成分之间或词语之间在性、数等方面应保持一致。主谓一致指谓语动词与主语必须在人称、性、数上保持一致。在具体处理一致关系时可遵循以下三原则：语法一致、意义一致、就近一致。
1. 集体名词作主语时，主语与谓语动词的一致 (Agreement between Subject and Predicate) 如集体名词在句中意指整体概念，谓语动词用单数形式；如在句中意指其具体成员，谓语动词用复数形式。这类集体名词包括：army，audience，class，school，committee，crowd, crew，couple, family, faulty，group, staff, team, public, party，cabinet, band，orchestra，personnel，club (俱乐部)，company (公司)，council (理事会)，government (政府)，jury (陪审团)等。
【例句】
The population of the earth is increasing very fast One third of the population here are farmers.
The public has every reason to be cautious of professional deception. The public now know the whole story.
The crew consists of 20 sailors. 船上人员由二十名水手组成。
The crew are divided as to the best way to cook the fish. 船员们对于用什么方法煮鱼最好意见不一。
The audience were greatly moved at the words. 听了这些话听众都很感动。
The audience was enormous. 观众人很多。
The present government, which hasn’t been in power long, is trying to control inflation. It isn’t having much success.现政府上台不久，就试图控制通货膨胀，但收效不大。
The government，who are looking for a quick victory，are calling for a general election soon. 政府希望很快获胜，要求立即进行大选。
2. 学科名称和疾病名称作主语时，主语与谓语动词的一致
某些学科名称和疾病名称虽是复数形式，但这些词作主语时，谓语动词仍用单数形式。这些词包括：electronics (电子学)，mechanics (力学)，classics (古典文学)，linguistics (语言学)，economics (经济学)，statistics (统计学)，physics (物理学)，mathematics (数学)等。
【例句】
Electronics is a piece of cake to him.
Quantum mechanics (量子力学) supplies methods for calculating the results of experiments in all those realms.
以-ics结尾的名词如表示的是一门学科，动词用单数，如指特定事物，动词用复数。
单 数 复 数 statistics 统计学 统计数字 tactics athletics 兵法 策略 mathematics 体育课 体育运动 politics 数学 数学能力 economics 政治 政见 mechanics 经济学 经济情况 acoustics 机械学 技巧，机械部分 声学 音响效果
3. 表示书名、报名、剧名、国名等的名词或词组作主语时，主语与谓语动词的一致
表示书名、报名、剧名、国名等的名词(或词组)作主语时，如只指一种、一本或一个，不论它形式上是单数还是复数，谓语动词只用单数形式。
【例句】
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was written by the famous American humorist Mark Twain. The New York Times is not available here. The United States was founded in 1776.
4. 单复数同形的名词作主语时，主语与谓语动词的一致 单复数同形的名词作主语时，要根据句子意思来确定诅语动词的单复数形式，单复数同形的名词包括：aircraft，deer，fish，sheep，means，species，series，works，crossroads，headquarters等。
【例句】
Various means of transport are introduced in this article.
There are already 137 species of butterflies known in the world today.
5. people，police，cattle，folk，militia，youth，vermin，puultry等作主语时，主语与谓语动词的一致是复数。 【例句】
There are many people present at the meeting. 许多人出席了这次会议。 The police have a difficult time keeping order. 警察很难维持秩序。 The cattle are grazing in the field. 牛群在田野上吃草。
专升本英语语法与词汇
