托福阅读机经题目目录 编号 一级分类 二级分类 文章标题 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 考古学 农业学 历史学 生态学 生物学 动物行为 风力传粉 谷物和豆类 卵的进化模型 蜜蜂 鸟儿歌唱 鸟儿学习歌唱 鸟类群居 青蛙发声 珊瑚礁 珊瑚礁起源 生物滞育 植物开花 移除大坝 工业革命 玛雅文明陷落 莫斯科崛起 十八世纪欧洲人口 中世纪欧洲 土耳其帝国晚期 早期农业用水 白垩纪大灭绝 更新世大灭绝 Animal Behavior Wind pollination Cereals and Legumes A Partnership Models of Egg Development Honeybee Society Birdsong How Birds Acquire Their Songs Bird Colonies Vocalization in Frogs Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Reefs The Origin of Coral Reefs The Role of Diapause What Controls Flowering Removing Dams Early Modern Industrialization The Collapse of the Mayans The Rise of Moscow Population Revolution in Eighteenth-Century Europe in the High Middle AgesAgriculture in the Late Ottoman Empire Water Management in Early Agriculture Extinctions at the End of the Cretaceous Pleistocene Extinctions 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 经济学 寒武纪大爆发 巨石阵的起源 恐龙灭绝 恐龙亲代养育 苏美尔人 十六世纪英国 十四世纪欧洲 The Cambrian Explosion Origins of the Megaliths The Extinction of the Dinosaurs Dinosaurs and Parental Care Sumerian Contributions England's Economy in sixteenth century Economic Decline in Europe During the Fourteenth Century 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 人类学 美索不达米亚和埃及 文字起源 大陆漂移 Mesopotamian and Egyptian Settlement The Origins of WritingEarly Theories of Continental Drift The Origin of Earth's Atmosphere Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age Earthquake Prediction Architectural Change in Eighth-Century Japan Comets Origin of the Solar System Motor Development in Children 地质学 地球大气起源 地球年龄 地震预测 建筑学 天文学 心理学 八世纪日本 彗星 太阳系 儿童动作 托福阅读机经答案目录 编号 一级分类 二级分类 文章标题 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 考古学 农业学 历史学 生态学 生物学 动物行为 风力传粉 谷物和豆类 卵的进化模型 蜜蜂 鸟儿歌唱 鸟儿学习歌唱 鸟类群居 青蛙发声 珊瑚礁 珊瑚礁起源 生物滞育 植物开花 移除大坝 工业革命 玛雅文明陷落 莫斯科崛起 十八世纪欧洲人口变中世纪欧洲 土耳其帝国晚期 早期农业用水 白垩纪大灭绝 更新世大灭绝 Animal Behavior Wind pollination Cereals and Legumes A Partnership Models of Egg Development Honeybee Society Birdsong How Birds Acquire Their Songs Bird Colonies Vocalization in Frogs Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Reefs The Origin of Coral Reefs The Role of Diapause What Controls Flowering Removing Dams Early Modern Industrialization The Collapse of the Mayans The Rise of Moscow Population Revolution in Eighteenth-Century Europe in the High Middle AgesAgriculture in the Late Ottoman Empire Water Management in Early Agriculture Extinctions at the End of the Cretaceous Pleistocene Extinctions 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 经济学 寒武纪大爆发 巨石阵的起源 恐龙灭绝 恐龙亲代养育 苏美尔人 十六世纪英国 十四世纪欧洲 The Cambrian Explosion Origins of the Megaliths The Extinction of the Dinosaurs Dinosaurs and Parental Care Sumerian Contributions England's Economy in sixteenth century Economic Decline in Europe During the Fourteenth Century 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 人类学 美索不达米亚和埃及 文字起源 大陆漂移 Mesopotamian and Egyptian Settlement The Origins of WritingEarly Theories of Continental Drift The Origin of Earth's Atmosphere Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age Earthquake Prediction Architectural Change in Eighth-Century Japan Comets Origin of the Solar System Motor Development in Children 地质学 地球大气起源 地球年龄 地震预测 建筑学 天文学 心理学 八世纪日本 彗星 太阳系 儿童动作 题目
Passage 1 Animal Behavior
1 By the early 1900s the field of animal behavior had split into two major branches. One branch, ethology,
developed primarily in Europe. To ethologists, what is striking about animal behaviors in that they are fixed and seemingly unchangeable? For example, kittens and puppies play in characteristic but different ways. Present a kitten with a ball of yarn and invariably it draws back its head and bats the yarn with claws extended. Kittens are generally silent as they play, and their tails twitch. Puppies, by contrast, are most likely to pounce flat-footed on a ball of yarn. They bit and bark and their tails wag. Ethologists came to believe that ultimately even the most complex animal behaviors could be broken down into a series of unchangeable stimulus/response reactions. They became convinced that the details of these patterns were as distinctive of a particular group of animals as were anatomical characteristics. For well over half a century, their search for and description of innate patterns of animal behavior continued. 2 Meanwhile, mainly in North America, the study of animal behavior took a different tack, developing into
comparative behavior. Of interest to comparative behaviorists was where a particular came from, that is, its evolutionary history, how the nervous system controlled it, and the extent to which it could be modified. In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, an early comparative behaviorist, insisted that animal behavior be explained as simply as possible without reference to emotions or motivations since these could not be observed or measured. In Morgan’s research, animals were put in simple situations, presented with an easily described stimulus, and their resultant behavior described. 3 The extension to animals of behaviorism—the idea that the study of behavior should be restricted to only
those elements that can be directly observed—was an important development in comparative behavior. Studies of stimulus/response and the importance of simple rewards to enforce and modify animal behavior were stressed. Not surprisingly, comparative behaviorists worked most comfortably in the laboratory. Comparative behaviorists stressed the idea that animal behavior could be modified, while their ethologist colleagues thought it was innate and unchangeable. Inevitably, the two approaches led to major disagreements. 4 To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and
unchangeable. ■ Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to so respond to light. ■ Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reasons. ■ The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. ■ Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out the nest, they learn to do so. If their behavior seems sometimes silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animal’s ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in instincts.
托福阅读核心预测
