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《新编语言学教程》课后答案

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(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.

(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentence

is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.

(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names. (4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is de?ned as observable

behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.

(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of an

expression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, in social interaction.

(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with the context,

determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense of a noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George

(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,

actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (referent) in the real world.

(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of

what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he” in English is any male person or male animal.

(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or a

combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” is emotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc.

(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem

which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic ?eld whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.

(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic ?eld of a language.

For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin.

(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzes

a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as [+human][+male][-adult].

(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of word

may be described as a combination of semantic components or features. For example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature [+adult], but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and [-], e.g. woman has the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].

(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items,

e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.

(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items,

e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.

(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a more

particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.

(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections of

the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.

(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situation

described or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, or cause.

(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (the

second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the ?rst is true, the second must be true.

(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterance

meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”

2. (1) He waited by the bank.

a. He waited by the ?nancial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom.

b. He waited by the bank of the river.

(2) Is he really that kind? a. Is he really that type of person? b. Is he really that kind-hearted? (3) We bought her dog biscuits. a. We bought dog biscuits for her.

b. We bought biscuits for her dog. (4) He saw that gasoline can explode. a. He saw that gasoline container explode. b. He saw that gasoline may explode. (5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes. a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total. b. Each of the ?fty soldiers shot three wild foxes. (6) He saw her drawing pencils. a. He saw her pencils for drawing.

b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.

3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms. 4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpful iron: strong, brave, hard, determined mole: traitor, betrayal, spy snow: pure, virgin, clean

street: homeless, living hard, pitiable

5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory (2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell

(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell

These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be

used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthe same ?eld.

6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace,

househomonyms: ear.

7. In a semantic ?eld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less marked

members of the same semantic ?eld (1) are usually easier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of another member of the same ?eld; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.

8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chief b. bull, rooster, drake, ram. The (a) and (b) words are male.

The (a) words are human. The (b) words are animals. (2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converse b. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, holler The (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds. The (a) words are normal voice quality.

The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality. (3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swim b. ?y, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide The (a) and (b) words are sports (movement). The (a) words are sports without instruments. The (b) words are sports with instruments.

(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.

(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with respect

to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.

(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events,

and qualities they stand for.

(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or

phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.

(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an

utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”

(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed

by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.

(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location) and

intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.

(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice

whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.

(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a means

or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requires speakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.

(10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational maxims in the Cooperative

Principle to produce extra meaning during conversation.

2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow. 3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it. 4. (1) He bought the beer. (2) You have a watch.

(3) We bought a car.

5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4)

6. (a) The Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be false; (2) Do not say that

for which you lack adequate evidence.

(b) The Maxim of Quantity: (1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the

current purpose of the exchange); (2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

(c) The Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.

(d) The Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous (1) Avoid obscurity of expression; (2) Avoid

ambiguity; (3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); (4) Be orderly.

7. The speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Agreement in PP. The

response begins with “well” rather than “no” in order to minimize disagreement between the speaker and hearer.

8. It is an indirect speech act. Carol invites Lara to a party, but Lara wants to decline the

invitation. To be polite, she doesn’t choose a direct refusal, instead she says “I’ve got an exam tomorrow” as a reasonable excuse to decline the invitation. In this way, she minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs, thus the utterance conforms to PP (1) discourse: a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language

pro-duced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.

(2) discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in written and spoken

language form larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews. (3) given information: the information that the addresser believes is known to

《新编语言学教程》课后答案

(1)semantics:thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.(2)truth-conditionalsemantics:anapproachthatknowingthemeaningofthesentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsu
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