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第一章
（判）Language is only a means of communication、（F） Language has a form-meaning correspondence、(F)
The function of language is to exchange information、(F) English is more difficult to learn than Chinese、(F)
Black English is not standard and should be reformed、(F) The following are some fundamental views about language、
判）Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction、(T)
Language operates by rules、(T)
All languages have three major components: a sound system语音系统, a system of lexicogrammar词汇语法 and a system of semantics语意学、(T) Everyone speaks a dialect、(T) Language slowly changes、(T)
Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons行话、(T) Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them、(T) Writing is derivative 来源得of speech、(T) Language is a means of verbal communication、
分析）P3)it is instrumental in that communication by speaking or writing is a purposeful act、 It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles、 Design features of language
The features that define our human languages can be called design features、 (1)Arbitrariness任意性 分析，以下三点
瑞士Saussure（现代语言学之父）: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning 、 (定义)
(1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme词素 and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic拟声得 words:
The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese、
2）Arbitrariness at the syntactic句法得 level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level、 （判）
By syntax that sentences are constructed to the grammar of arrangement 3）Arbitrariness and convention、 Conventionality 规约性
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention、
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Conventionality , as learners of English we are often told “this is an idiom”—meaning it is conventional to say things this way and you cannot change the expression any other way even if you think it does not look or sound logical、 (2)Duality 双重性 定义/单
By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level (3)Creativity 创造性 定义/填
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness递归性、 (4)Displacement 移位性 定义
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication、 And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts、单 Functions of language
For Jakobson, language is above all for communication、
In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:
speaker, addressee, context, message, code元语言解码, contact、 Six key elements of communication,namely: referential (to convey message and information), Poetic诗学 (to indulge in language for its own sake),
emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),
conative 意动(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic 寒暄(to establish communion with others)
Metalingual funcation (to clear up intentions and meanings)、
Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational概念功能, interpersonal 人际功能and textual 语篇功能functions、 填 (1)Informative function最重要
For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language、判
The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language、 (2)Interpersonal function
By far the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society、 (3)Performative function施为功能
The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of
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children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies、 For example, sui sui ping an (4)Emotive function Expressive function
(5)Phatic communion 寒暄功能 书上得例句选择 (6)Recreational function 娱乐功能
the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting、
(7)Metalingual function 源语言 填空
Our language can be used to talk about itself、 What is Linguistics?
The scientific study of human language Main branches of linguistics 定义/填空/大题 Phonetics 语音学 Phonology 音系学 Morphology 形态学 Syntax 句法学 Semantics 语义学 Pragmatics 语用学
Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc、 We can approach it on various levels、
At one level, speech is a matter of anatomy 解剖学and physiology生理学、 We can study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the production of speech、
At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs by
identifying and classifying the individual sounds、 This is the domain of articulatory phonetics发音语言学、
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We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves — acoustic phonetics声学语言学、
As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave — auditory phonetics听觉语言学、
Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables、 It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure、
A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning、
Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words、 It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation processes、 Morphemes serve different purposes、
Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences、 Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language、
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context、 It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation、 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 单
Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition、 ? Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the
characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community、 Descriptive vs、 prescriptive 描述 ? Synchronic vs、 diachronic
A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation、 Most grammars are of this kind、
Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history、 The structure of Shakespeare English ? Langue & parole 区别
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Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole、 ? Competence and performance
This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)、
A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence、
Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations 第二章
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived、定义
Three main areas:
Articulatory phonetics: studies the production of speech sounds; Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of speech sounds; Auditory phonetics: studies the perception of speech sounds、
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language、单 Speech Organs 发音器官 定义/填空
=Vocal organs: parts of human body involved in the production of speech Vocal tract, oral cavity口腔, nasal cavity鼻腔 Vocal folds 声带
apart: voiceless sounds [p, s, t] Close together: voiced sounds [b, z, d] Totally closed：glottal stop 声门塞音 The IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标表格
The idea was first proposed by the Danish grammarian Jespersen in 1886、 The first version of IPA was published in August 1888、 The latest version was revised in 2005、
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