notfixed and static but potientially,variable and dynamic,fluctuating in accordance with the learner‘s changing social experiences.2nd, it fails to acknowledge learners are not just subject to social conditions but can also become the subject of them ;they can help to construct the social context of their own learning .
Social identity and investment inL2 learning
According to Pierce, a learner‘s social identity is multiple and
contradictory .Learning is successful when learners are able to summon up or construct an identity that enables them impose their right to be heard and thus become the subject of the discourse ,which requires investment something learners will make if they believe their efforts will increase the value of their ―cultural capital‖. Learners are combatants who battle to assert themselves and investors who expect a good return on their efforts. dSuccessful learners are those who reflect critically on how they engage with native speakers and who are prepared to challenge the accepted social order by constructing and asserting social identities of their own choice. 5. Discourse aspects of interlanguage
Social factors do not impact directly on what goes on inside the black box. To consider what the nature of this communication is and how it affects L2 acquisition ,our attention must be focused on the discourse in which learners participate .The study of learner discourse has been informed by two rather different goals.1st,attempt to discover how L2 learners acquire the rules of discourse that inform native speaker language use.2nd ,seek to show how interaction shapes interlanguage development .
Acquiring discourse rules There are rules ,at least ,regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversation. Acquisition of discourse rules is systematic ,reflecting both distinct types of errors and developmental sequences. However, more work is needed to demonstrate which aspects are universal and which are specificas it is clear that many aspects of learner discourse are influenced by the rules of discourse in the learner‘s L1. The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition
A behaviourist view treats language learning as environmentally
determined, controlled from the outside by the stimuli learners are exposed to and the reinforcement they receive.
Mentalist theories emphasize the importance of the learner‘s black box.. They maintain that learners‘ brains are equipped to learn language and all that is needed is minimal exposure to input in order to trigger acquisition Interaction theories acknowledge the importance of both input and internal language processing .Learning takes place as a result of a complex interaction between the linguistic environment and the learner‘s internal mechanisms.
As we have already seen, the behavioutist view has been largely discredited. Ungrammatical foreigner talk is socially marked. It implies a lack of respect on the part of the native speaker and can be resented by the learners. It should be apparent that these features are the same as those commonly found in learner‘s interlanguage.
It is unlikely that learners who experience grammatical foreigner talk still manifest the same interlanguage errors as those that experience
ungrammatical foreigner talk. There is no convincing evidence that learner‘s errors derive from the language they are exposed to. grammatical foreigner talk is the norm .
various types of modification of baseline talk can be identified. 1st, grammatical foreigner talk is delivered at a slower pace. 2nd,the input is simplified.
3rd, grammatical foreigner talk is sometimes regularized 4th, foreigner talk sometimes consists of elaborated language use. Modified interaction of this kind is common in learner discourse. Krashen‘s input hypothesis that L2 acquisition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at ?I+I. He suggests the right level of input is attained automatically when
interlocutors succeed in making themselves understood in communication. Success is achieved by using the situational context to make messages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk .According to Krashen ,then,,L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.
Michael Long‘s interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but it claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning .however, sometimes interaction can overload learners with input where acquisition may be impeded rather than facilitated. The relationship between modified interaction and L2 acquisition is clearly a complex one.
Evelyn Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavours of the learners and
their interlocutures in constructing discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building discourse. One way in which this can occur is through scaffolding.
Vygotsky explains how interaction serves as the bedrock of acquisition. The two key constructs in activity theory based on his ideas are Motive and Internalization. The first concerns the active way in which individuals defines the goals of an activity for themselves by deciding what to attend to and what not to attend to .The second concerns how a novice comes to solve a problem with the assistance of an expert, who provides scaffolding and then internalizes the solution .In this respect ,the notion of the zone of proximal development which are created through interaction with more knowledgeable others. subsequently, the child learns how to control a concept without the assistance .Seen this way ,development manifests itself first in social interaction and only later inside the learner. According to the theory , socially constructed L2 knowledge is a necessary condition for interlanguage development. The role of output in L2 acquisition
Krashenargues that speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. He claims the only way learners can learn from the output is by treating it as auto input. In effect ,he is refuting the cherished belief of many teachers that languages are learned by practicing them.
Swain has argued that comprehensible output also play a part in L2 acquisition. Output can serve a consciousness –raising function by helping learners to notice the gap in their interlaguages: 1st,by trying to speak or
write in the L2 they realize that they lack the grammatical knowledge of some feature that is important for what they want to say. 2nd,output helps learners to test hypothesis .They can try out a rule and see whether it leads to successful communication or whether it elicits negative feedback . 3rd,learners sometimes talk about their own output ,identifying problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right. 6. Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
Psycholinguistic is the study of the mental structures and processes involved in the acquisition and the use of language. The study of Psycholinguistic aspects of L2 acquisition has been prominent in SLA and has given rise to many acquisition models. L1 transfer—---- (cross –linguistic influence)
Negative transfer--interference ,positive transfer.avoidance,overuse, Comparison of the L1 and L2 were carried out using contrastive analysis for behavourist.In the heyday of behaviourism it was believed that errors were largely the result of interference.
In the early 1970s ,two developments were:1st mentalist accounts of L2 acquisition ,sought to play down the role of .2nd,was to reconceptualize transfer within a cognitive framework.Larry Selinker in his formulation of interlanguage theory he identified language transfer as one of the mental processes responsible for fossilization .The L1 can be viewed as a kind of input from the inside.transfer is not interference ,but a cognitive process. Differences between the target and native languages do not always result in learning difficulty.SLA has succeeded in identifying some of the cognitive
第二语言习得ellis rod 要点 打印版
