1.performatives
did not state a face or describe a state, and were not verifiable
2. onstatives：either state or discribe, and were thus verifiable
3.perlocutionary act：It is the act performed by or resulting from saying something it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
4.cooperative principle: in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to coopreate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk
5.Sociolinguistics:It is defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc 6.Context of Situation:It is a framework put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the ―competence‖ vs. ―performance‖ dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.
7.Nida’s Classification of Culture According to Nida (1964), there are five types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of when engaged in translation:①ecological culture;②linguistic culture;③religious culture;④material culture;⑤social culture 8.Linguistic Determinism It is the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought. Determinism itself refers to the viewpoint that all events are caused by previous events, and linguistic determinism can be used broadly to refer to a number of specific views. 9.Linguistic Relativity：The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers are able to conceptualize their world, i.e. their world view. Popularly known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined as having two versions:① the strong version that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories and ② the weak version that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain
kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
10.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. Most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of language acquisition especially in children and linguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances or sentences among adults. 11.Connectionism: With respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones. 12.Cohort model: The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. 13.Interactive model: The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, ―top-down‖ influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of kexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to ―hear‖ phonemes that have been removed from the speech
signal and replaced by noise. 14.synonymy ：Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is also named as sameness relation. 15. polysemy : Polysemy refers to a word that has two or more similar meanings, for example:
1)The house is at the foot of the mountains
2) One of his shoes felt too tight for his foot
'Foot' in the first sentence refers to the bottom part of the mountains in the first sentence and the bottom part of the leg in the second. 16.hyponymy: Hyponymy is the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. For example, the meaning of desk is included in that of furniture, and the meaning of rose is included in that of flower. 17. antonymy: a word that means the opposite of another word, it can be further divided into gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, and converse antonymy.
18. Componential analysis: Componential analysis, also called feature analysis or contrast analysis, refers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of semantic features, which are given as ―present‖, ―absent‖.The method thus departs from the principle of compositionality(组合原则). Componential analysis is a method typical of structural semantics which analyzes the structure of a word's meaning.
19. Compositionality : Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.
1.It has been widely recognized that the so-called “magic words” like “thank you” and “please” are more commonly used in English speaking society than they will in Chinese speaking society. One of explanations for this phenomenon may go like this: Look, these foreigners are really more polite than our countrymen. Try to use your knowledge in sociolinguistics and make some comments on this understanding of cultural difference？Basically speaking, the above explanation is not a correct one. As we all know, people from different cultural backgrounds speak differently. A maxim we should keep in mind is that one culture’s meat can be another culture’s poison. Take the quoted example again. English people and Chinese people have their distinctive ways to express politeness. In most cases, expressions like ―thank you‖ and ―please‖ are used as a lip service in English, not really meaning that the speaker owes you something. On the other hand, a friendly smile or a slight nodding will be a more common practice in Chinese culture to express politeness. If we are not aware of this subtle difference, new cultural misunderstanding will come into being. For instance, you may either feel that English speakers are so polite for trivial thing s that appear false and less sincere or consider that Chinese speakers are so rude that they never know how to speak politely.
2. What will you say to a statement like “One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?In cross-cultural communication, when people have some trouble and don’t know how to behave correctly, they tend to turn to their source culture for help. This is a strategy often used by communicators in a new cultural setting. Convenient as it is , this strategy may not always work. For too many bad stories can be told to illustrate this point. This is because people from different communities think, behave, and speak differently. As our case studies in Chapter show, if we are not ready for this difference, we may run into trouble.
Therefore, a principle that cross-cultural communicators should follow is to understand the target culture by transcending the source culture. Put alternatively, try to do as the Romans do when in Rome.
3.Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of ―the dog‖ and ―the man‖ in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of ―the dog‖ and ―the man‖ in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another. 4.For each group of words given blew，state what semantic . ①The (a) words and (b) words are male.
The (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human. ②The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.
The (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible. ③The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.
The (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.
填空1.Austin claims that
there are two types of topics of interest.
sentences: performatives 14 Words are planned in and constatives. several processing steps. The 2.According to Austin, the first processing step, called act performed is known as conceptualization . an illocutionary act.
3.According to Austin, the consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer is called a perlocutionary act. 4.The implied meaning is called implicature.
5 The interactive model holds that higher processing levels have a direct _―top-down‖ influence on lower levels.
6 Dual-route model claim that the assembly process operates in a serial fashion such that the phonological forms of the leftmost element6s are delivered before those for the
7 The comprehension of language focuses on the core processes such as word retrieval and recognition , sentence parsing and textual interpretation.
8 The race model does not agree ―top-down‖ effects, it has two routes that race each other —— a pre-lexical route, which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when 9 Parallel models emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general.
10. Psycholinguists have proposed SERIAL MODELS and PARALLEL MODELS to interpret the comprehension of sentence. 11Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. The most popular principle is Minimal attachment . 12 According to Resonance model, information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to
13 Various aspects of process of language production, such as conceptualization and linearization, grammatical and phonological encoding, self-repair an gesturing during speech have been
语言学
