architecture of the product, and industrial designers develop renderings to show styling and layout alternatives. After narrowing the selection, non-functional appearance models are built of candidate designs.
Select a Product Concept: Through the process of evaluation and tradeoffs between attributes, a final concept is selected. The selection process may be confined to the team and key executives within the company, or customers may be polled for their input. Candidate appearance models are often used for additional market research; to obtain feedback from certain key customers, or as a centerpiece of focus groups.
Refine Product Specifications: In this stage, product specifications are refined on the basis of input from the foregoing activities. Final specifications are the result of tradeoffs made between technical feasibility, expected service life, projected selling price, and the financial limitations of the development project. With a new luggage product, for example, consumers may want a product that is lightweight, inexpensive, attractive, and with the ability to expand to carry varying amounts of luggage. Unfortunately, the mechanism needed for the expandable feature will increase the selling price, add weight to the product, and introduce a mechanism that has the potential for failure. Consequently, the team must choose between a heavier, more costly product, or one that does not have the expandable feature. When product attributes are in conflict, or when the technical challenge or higher selling price of a particular feature outweighs its benefits, the specification may be dropped or modified in favor of other benefits.
Perform Economic Analysis: Throughout the foregoing activities, important economic implications regarding development expenses, manufacturing costs, and selling price have been estimated. A thorough economic analysis of the product and the required development effort is necessary in order to define the remainder of the development project. An economic model of the product and a review of anticipated development expenses in relation to expected benefits is now developed.
Plan the Remaining Development Project: In this final stage of concept development, the team prepares a detailed development plan which includes a list of activities, the necessary resources and expenses, and a development schedule with milestones for tracking progress. System-Level Design
System-level design, or the task of designing the architecture of the product, is the subject of this stage. In prior stages, the team was focused on the core product idea, and the prospective design was largely based on overviews rather than in-depth design and engineering. Once the development plan is approved, marketing may begin to develop ideas for additional product options and add-ons, or perhaps an extended product family. Designers and engineers develop the product architecture in detail, and manufacturing determines which components should be made and which should be purchased, and identifies the necessary suppliers.
The product architecture defines the product in chunks, or the primary functional systems and subsystems, and how these systems are arranged to work as a unit. For example, an automobile is comprised of a body and a chassis with an engine, a transmission, final drive, frame, suspension and braking system. The architecture of an automobile design determines the platform layout, whether the vehicle is front-wheel-drive or rear-wheel-drive, the size and location of the engine, transmission and final drive, the overall design of suspension system, and the layout and type of other necessary subsystems such as brakes, wheels, and steering. The architecture may determine the layout of the exhaust system, but it would not provide the detailed engineering needed to
determine the diameter and thickness of the exhaust pipe, the detailed design of mufflers, nor the engineering of motor mounts and exhaust hangers needed to isolate vibrations from the passenger compartment.
The architecture of the product, how it is divided into chunks and how the chunks are integrated into the total product, impacts a number of important attributes such as standardization of components, modularity, options for change later on, ease of manufacture, and how the development project is divided into manageable tasks and expenses. If a family of products or upgrades and add-ons are planned, the architecture of the product would determine the commonality of components and the ease with which upgrades and add-ons can be installed. A system or subsystem borrowed from another product within the company's line will economize on development, tooling and manufacturing costs. With outsourced components, the supplier may contribute much of the associated design and engineering. Detail Design
Detail design, or design-for-manufacture, is the stage wherein the necessary engineering is done for every component of the product. During this phase, each part is identified and engineered. Tolerances, materials, and finishes are defined, and the design is documented with drawings or computer files. Increasingly, manufacturers and developers are turning to three-dimensional solid modeling using programs such as Pro-Engineer. Three-dimensional computer models form the core of today's rapid prototyping and rapid manufacturing technologies. Once the database has been developed, prototype components can be rapidly built on computerized machines such as CNC mills, fused deposition modeling devices, or stereo lithography systems. Testing and Refinement
During the testing and refinement stage, a number of prototypes are built and tested. Even though they are not made from production components, prototypes emulate production products as closely as possible. These alpha prototypes are necessary to determine whether the performance of the product matches the specifications, and to uncover design shortfalls and gain in-the-field experience with the product in use. Later, beta prototypes are built from the first production components received from suppliers. Production Ramp-up
During production ramp-up, the work force is trained as the first products are being assembled. The comparatively slow product build provides time to work out any remaining problems with supplier components, fabrication, and assembly procedures. The staff and supervisory team is organized, beginning with a core team, and line workers are trained by assembling production units.
Technology-Push Products
The generic development process is used with technology-push products, but with slight modification. With technology-push products, the company acquires or develops a new technology and then looks for appropriate markets in which to apply the technology. Consequently, an extra phase is added at the beginning during which the new technology is matched to an appropriate market opportunity. When the match has been made, the generic development process is carried out as described. Models and Prototypes
The terms prototype and model are often used interchangeably to mean any full-scale pre-production representation of a design, whether functional or not. I prefer to use the term model
to describe a non-functional representation and the term prototype to describe a functional item. An appearance model is a full-scale, non-functional representation that looks, as closely as possible, identical to the prospective new product. Modeling and prototyping serve a variety of purposes throughout the development effort.
Early on, engineering prototypes may be built of systems and subsystems to bench-test performance and debug the system before proceeding with the design. Appearance models prove out styling and ergonomics. A full-scale mockup of an automobile interior, for example, provides a real-world test of ease of ingress, seating position, access to controls, visibility and appearance. Models and prototypes are necessary because of the limitations of theoretical work and artificial mediums. A product can be designed and put into simulated use on computer, but one doesn't really know how it will work until the item is built and tested in its intended environment. Prototyping and modeling efforts begin virtually at the inception of the project and continue into production ramp-up.
The Role of Industrial Design
According to the definition given by the Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA), industrial design (ID) is the \service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer.\engineering necessities. The ID practitioner blends the human meanings expressed through form, color, and texture with the mechanical realities of function in a way that broadcasts a coherent and purposeful message to those who experience the product. Good industrial design can create additional product benefits through the selection of materials and the architecture of the design. Industrial designers have extensive training in art, as well as training in basic engineering, manufacturing and fabrication processes, and marketing practices. Dreyfuss (1967) lists five critical goals that industrial designers bring to a team when developing new products:
Utility: The product's human interfaces should be safe, easy to use, and intuitive. Each feature should be shaped so that it communicates its function to the user.
Appearance: Form, line, proportion, and color are used to integrate the product into a pleasing whole.
Ease of Maintenance: Products must also be designed to communicate how they are to be maintained and repaired.
Low Costs: Form and features have a large impact on tooling and production costs, so they must be considered jointly by the team.
Communication: Product designs should communicate the corporate design philosophy and mission through the visual qualities of the products.
Industrial design is costly and the value per dollar spent is often difficult to quantity. The value becomes obvious, however, when one experiences the results. When the purchaser intuitively understands a product's function, and senses the quality of its construction and the integrity of the company that produced it, these subliminal messages are normally the result of good industrial design.
Industrial designers usually become involved in a development project almost at the outset. Enthusiasm within the development team increases when industrial designers develop an attractive concept early in the project. When members have a real concept to work towards, the effort ceases to be a purely cerebral exercise, and instead, comes alive with personal meaning.
第四章 系统设计
设计是革新，是创造。人类社会文明发展史中，充满了一次又一次的革新和发明创造。在各种情况下，人类总是创造出某些前所未有的东西。他们总是先有某种需要，而后产生一种怎样才能满足这种需要的思想，最后经过百折不回的努力将其变成现实。我们把这样一个过程和称之为设计。设计所要追求的目标是要在给定的条件下实现最优化设计。
一、什么是系统设计
系统设计就是设计师在给定的条件（称为约束条件）下，设计出满足需要的最佳系统。 那什么是系统呢？系统是指具有特定功能的、相互间具有有机联系的若干要素构成的、达到规定目的的一个整体。一般认为，由两个或两个以上的要素组成的、具有一定结构和特定功能的整体都可看作是一个系统。 系统有下述一些特性：
1）整体性。系统是由若干要素构成的有机整体，对内呈现各要素之间的最优组合，使信息流畅、反馈敏捷，对外则呈现出整体特性。要研究系统内各要素发生变化对整体特性的影响。 2）相关性。构成系统的要素之间是有机联系的，即相关的，它们之间相互作用、相互影响而形成特定的关系。这意味着其中的一个要素发生变化，都将对其他要素产生影响。因此，应研究影响范围、影响方式和影响程度。
3）目的性。系统的价值体现在其功能上，完成特定的功能是系统存在的目的。一个系统可以是单一目的，也可以是多个目的。这些目的往往是相互矛盾的，因此就必须应用运筹学中的多目标优化设计法，求出各目标的折衷最优解。
4）环境适应性。任何一个系统都存在于一定的物质环境中，外部环境的变化，会使系统的输入发生变化，甚至产生干扰，引起系统功能的变化。一般情况下，系统与外部环境总是有能量交换、物质交换和信息交换。一个好的系统，其工作特性不应受环境的影响，能在环境对系统的输入发生变化时，自动调节自己的参数，始终使自己牌最佳运行状态。这样的系统具有“学习”功能，称为适应系统。
一个大的系统可由若干小的系统组成， 这些小的系统常为子系统。子系统又可由它所属的更小的子系统组成。系统本身也可以是别的更大系统的组成部分。
系统设计时，对其直接对象（如机械、装置等）和包围它的外部环境同时进行考虑。前者称为内部系统，后者称为外部系统。内部系统与外部系统之间存在着一定的联系，相互间有作用和影响。外部系统对内部系统的作用和影响，对外部系统来说是输出，而对内部系统来说则是输入；反之，内部系统对外部系统的作用和影响，对内部系统来说是输出，而对外部系统来说则是输入。所谓外部系统对内部系统的输入，比如，社会上对某一机械所要求的事项（功能、经费、工期、尺寸等）和约束条件（环境、资金、材料、信息、技术 、法律等），内部系统必须满足这些要求。所谓内部系统对外部系统的输出，是指在系统完成后，社会所受到的变化，包括从系统受到的利益和损害，对其他系统的影响，以及它所涉及的效果等等。将内部系统 和外部系统合并一起称为全系统。
内部系统与外部系统设计相结合是系统设计的特点，它可以使系统设计尽量做到周密、合理，少走弯路，避免不必要的返工和浪费，以尽可能少的投资获取尽可能大的效益。 系统设计不只是关心系统各组成部分的工作状态和性能，这是由于系统各组成部分的性质并不能代表整个系统的性质，整个系统的性质也不是它们的简单叠加。系统设计必须考虑整个系统的运行状态和性能，系统设计的侧重点是系统，是系统作为一个整体所表现出的性能和运行状态。
二、系统设计的发展
20年代在德国兴起的系统设计在六七十年代结出了硕果。系统设计的基本概念以系统思维
为基础，目的在于给予纷乱的世界以秩序，将客观物体置于相互影响和相互制约的关系之中。系统思维被当作当今高度发展的工业时代的先决条件，因为这样的思维可以让错综复杂的工业生产过程一目了然。设计中的系统由许多单元组成，这些单元聚合在一起可组成一个整体。设计品在系统体系中产生出新的功能，如可叠性等，因此，直角是这种设计方法的基础。 汉斯·古戈洛特将系统设计应用到产品设计上，为布劳恩公司推出了积木式系列留声机，然后他与拉姆斯又对其进行了进一步的研制，从而创造了生产积木式系列留声机和以后的高保真音响系列设备的开端。到 70年代，几乎所有生产此类产品的公司都采用了积木式设计体系。系统设计具有组合性能，可以根据需要随意进行不同的组装，同时满足办公和居住的各种不同需要。系统设计对于建筑领域、产品设计领域以及视觉设计范畴产生了重要影响，启发并直接导致了从60年代开始兴起，70年代受到重视，八九十年代普及的企业整体形象设计。
60年代的德国设计组织以斯图加特设计中心、埃森工业形态研究院和达姆施塔特造型理事会为代表，三个设计组织的共同目标是促成德国产品设计的“出色造型”。随着时间的推移，“优质工作”成为德国设计工作的口号，70年代以来重新成为提高德国出口的手段，在这些机构及设计师努力下，“德国制造”始终意味着产品的耐用性，普遍的现实性，最新的工艺，实用的包装，可靠的供货以及用到的服务。60年代末期建立的柏林国际设计中心的目的则是设想如何更好地解决环境造型问题，在现代设计中表现出远见卓识。 三、系统设计的应用．
因人们生活水平和欣赏水平的不断提高，社会上各行各业都已经离不开设计，然而，一个没有系统支撑的设计又怎么能在社会上立足呢？就产品制造商而言，设计已经成了他们耐以生存的东西，一个成熟，系统的设计方案是他们的产品能在社会上立足的基本骨架． 从手机方面，它的内部系统是一个很严密的机械化的东西，需要高级的机械专家来设计，一个设计师是不可能完成里面所有部件的设计的，它需要各个设计师之间密切配合，共同交流，形成一个严密的设计系统才可能保证产品的完美性．相对而言，表面的设计的系统性就稍稍的自由一些，各个设计师之间相对独立．然而，要制造出一个真正的舒适，耐看，耐用的手机，也是要通过一个严密的系统化，才能完成．各个设计师之间假若互相不管，互相不学习，离开了一个整体的系统，那就不叫系统设计。从数学角度上讲，要求精简材料，减少成本，减少设计的路径，这样就可以减少人员；从应用数学方面来说，手机的利润与成本的关系，手机的新颖，被淘汰率，都是我们设计师该考虑的。离开了一个整体概念，设计就完全不存在。
工业产品不是简单的外形设计，作为刚涉及这个领域的我们，大多数人都把自己简单的定位在外形设计师上，由此许多看似思路新颖、想法奇特的作品被枪毙，我们忽略了产品应该是为了适应大众的消费，产品的市场就是设计师和公司的市场，产品设计应该着眼于系统化设计，正如著名工业设计师 DYSON所说的“没有人会因为画板上的创意而成功”“设计是表现，最重要的是内在，产品好用才会产生美”。产品达到美并不容易，它要达到外形外部系统和内部结构系统的绝妙结合，系统设计始终应该指导着设计师设计的全部过程。 再以一新型电视机的设计为例： 项目描述与制定。随着环境与生产矛盾的日益突出以及绿色观念的流行，再加上生产技术成熟程度、普及率的提升，电视机作为人们常用的大型家电之一，其传统模式的生产与销售面临着重重压力。为提高产品竞争力和市场占有率，在产品设计过程中贯彻系统设计的思想，研制出健康、宜人的绿色电视。 电视机设计定位要求综合考虑环境、材料、工艺、造型、使用环境、消费者心理等各种因素，而以环境亲和性、使用合理性、消费者心理的满足性为开发重点，要把这几点共渗入意识中，用以指导产品的整个并行闭环的系统设计流程。
产品设计活动的行为方式及基本流程 - 图文
