problem with misunderstanding. The drawbacks of specific plans are that they require clarity and a sense of predictability that often do not exist. When uncertainty is high and managers must be flexible in order to respond to unexpected changes, directional plans are preferable. Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines. They provide focus but don’t lock managers into specific goals or courses of action. However, the flexibility inherent in directional plans must be weighed against the loss of clarity provided by specific plans. A single-use plan is a one-time plan specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. In contrast, standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities performed repeatedly. Standing plans include policies, rules, and procedures. (difficult; p. 189-191)
137. Answer
Management by objectives (MBO) is a management system in which specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees and their managers, progress toward accomplishing these goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress. Rather than using goals only as controls, MBO uses them to motivate employees as well. Management by objectives consists of four elements: goal specificity, participative decision making, an explicit time period, and performance feedback. Its appeal lies in its focus on employees working to accomplish goals they have had a hand in determining. One problem is that MBO may not be as effective in times of dynamic environmental change. Under an MBO program, employees need some stability to work toward accomplishing the set goals. If new goals must be set every few weeks, there’s no time for employees to work on accomplishing the goals and measuring that accomplishment. Another problem of MBO programs is that an overemphasis by an employee on accomplishing his or her goals without regard to others in the work unit can be counterproductive. A manager must work closely with all members of the work unit to assure that employees aren’t working at cross-purposes. Finally, if MBO is viewed simply as an annual exercise in filling out paperwork, employees won’t be motivated to accomplish the goals. (moderate; p. 192-193)
138. Answer
(1) A well-designed goal should be written in terms of outcomes rather than actions. The desired end result is the most important element of any goal and, therefore, the goal should be written to reflect this. (2) Next, a goal should be measurable and quantifiable. It’s much easier to determine if a goal has been met if it’s measurable. In line with specifying a quantifiable measure of accomplishment, (3) a well-designed goal should also be clear as to a time frame. Although open-ended goals may seem preferable because of their supposed flexibility, in fact, goals without a time frame make an organization less flexible because a manager is never sure when the goal has been met or when he or she should call it quits because the goal will never be met regardless of how long he or she works at it. (4) Next, a well-designed goal should be challenging but attainable. Goals that are too easy to accomplish are not motivating and neither are goals that are not attainable even with exceptional effort. (5) Well-designed goals should be written down. Although actually writing down goals may seem too time consuming, the process of writing the goals forces people to think them through. In addition, the written goals become visible and tangible evidence of the importance of working toward something. (6) Finally, well-designed goals are communicated to all organizational members who need to know the goals. Making people aware of the goals ensures that they’re “on the same page” and working in ways to ensure the accomplishment of the organizational goals. (moderate; p. 193-194)
139. Answer
Three contingency factors affect planning: level in the organization, degree of environmental uncertainty, and length of future commitments. The planner’s level in the organization is likely to determine whether the plan is more short term and tactical versus more long term and strategic. For the most part, operational planning dominates managers’ planning at lower levels of the organization, while at upper levels, planning is more strategy oriented. Environmental uncertainty is the second contingency factor. When uncertainty is high, plans should be specific, but more flexible. Under these conditions, managers may sometimes need to abandon an existing plan in favor of a new one. Under low uncertainty, management is more likely to adhere to existing plans. Lastly, the time frame of existing plans is likely to influence new and emerging plans. The more current plans affect future commitments, the longer the time frame is for which managers must plan. (moderate; p. 195-196)
140. Answer
One of the main arguments directed at formal planning is that it may create rigidity and lock an organization into specific goals to be achieved within specific timetables. Second, some argue that plans cannot be developed for a dynamic environment. Third, formal planning efforts typically involve a thorough investigation of the organization’s capabilities and opportunities and a mechanical analysis that reduces the vision to some type of programmed routine. That approach can spell disaster for an organization. Fourth, formal planning has a tendency to focus on how to capitalize on existing business opportunities within an industry. It often does not allow managers to consider creating or reinventing an industry. Fifth, formal planning reinforces success, which may lead to failure. Finally, planning is not enough. At some point managers must begin doing. (easy; p. 198-199)
141.Answer
In an uncertain environment, managers want to develop plans that are specific, but flexible. Although this may seem contradictory, it’s not. To be useful, plans need some specificity, but the plans should not be cast in stone. Managers must recognize that planning is an ongoing process. The plans serve as a roadmap although the destination may be changing constantly due to dynamic market conditions. They should be willing to change directions if environmental conditions warrant. This flexibility is particularly important as plans are implemented. Managers must stay alert to environmental changes that could impact the effective implementation of plans and make changes as needed. Keep in mind, also, that it’s important to continue formal planning efforts, even when the environment is highly uncertain, in order to see any effect on organizational performance. It’s the persistence in planning efforts that contributes to significant performance improvement. It seems that, as with most activities, managers “learn to plan” and the quality of their planning improves when they continue to do it. Finally, effective planning in dynamic environments means flattening the organizational hierarchy as the responsibility for establishing goals and developing plans is shoved to lower organizational levels because there’s little time for goals and plans to flow down from the top. Managers must train their employees in setting goals and establishing plans and then trust that they will do so. (moderate; p. 200)
管理学第9版 练习题 附答案 7
