leading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \third revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \n a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \hree real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be2011年全国计算机等级考试二级公共基础知识要点（2）
2. 程序设计基础
2.1 程序设计设计方法和风格
良好的程序设计风格：1、源程序文档化；2、数据说明的方法；3、语句的结构；4、输入和输出。
注释分序言性注释和功能性注释，语句结构清晰第一、效率第二。 2.2 结构化程序设计
结构化程序设计方法的四条原则是：1. 自顶向下；2. 逐步求精；3.模块化；4.限制使用goto语句。
结构化程序的基本结构和特点：
（1）顺序结构：一种简单的程序设计，最基本、最常用的结构；
（2）选择结构：又称分支结构，包括简单选择和多分支选择结构，可根据条件，判断应该选择哪一条分支来执行相应的语句序列；
（3）重复结构：又称循环结构，可根据给定条件，判断是否需要重复执行某一相同程序段。
2.3 面向对象的程序设计
面向对象的程序设计：以60年代末挪威奥斯陆大学和挪威计算机中心研制的SIMULA语言为标志。
面向对象方法的优点：1、与人类习惯的思维方法一致；2、稳定性好；3、可重用性好；4、易于开发大型软件产品；5、可维护性好。
对象是面向对象方法中最基本的概念，可以用来表示客观世界中的任何实体，对象是实体的抽象。
面向对象的程序设计方法中的对象是系统中用来描述客观事物的一个实体，是构成系统的一个基本单位，由一组表示其静态特征的属性和它可执行的一组操作组成。 属性即对象所包含的信息，操作描述了对象执行的功能，操作也称为方法或服务。 对象的基本特点：1、标识惟一性；2、分类性；3、多态性；4、封装性；5、模块独立性好。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacityleading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \d revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\ and \hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \n a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \hree real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be 类是指具有共同属性、共同方法的对象的集合。所以类是对象的抽象，对象是对应类的一个实例。
消息是一个实例与另一个实例之间传递的信息。
消息的组成包括：1、接收消息的对象的名称；2、消息标识符，也称消息名；3、零个或多个参数。
继承是指能够直接获得已有的性质和特征，而不必重复定义他们。
继承分单继承和多重继承。单继承指一个类只允许有一个父类，多重继承指一个类允许有多个父类。
多态性是指同样的消息被不同的对象接受时可导致完全不同的行动的现象。 3. 软件工程基础 3.1 软件工程基本概念
计算机软件是包括程序、数据及相关文档的完整集合。 软件的特点包括：
（1）软件是一种逻辑实体；
（2）软件的生产与硬件不同，它没有明显的制作过程； （3）软件在运行、使用期间不存在磨损、老化问题；
（4）软件的开发、运行对计算机系统具有依赖性，受计算机系统的限制，这导致了软件移植的问题；
（5）软件复杂性高，成本昂贵； （6）软件开发涉及诸多的社会因素。
软件按功能分为应用软件、系统软件、支撑软件（或工具软件）。 软件危机主要表现在成本、质量、生产率等问题。
软件工程是应用于计算机软件的定义、开发和维护的一整套方法、工具、文档、实践标准和工序。
软件工程包括3个要素：方法、工具和过程。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacityleading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \d revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \two learn a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \three strict three real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be 软件工程过程是把软件转化为输出的一组彼此相关的资源和活动，包含4种基本活动：
（1）P——软件规格说明；（2）D——软件开发；（3）C——软件确认；（4）A——软件演进。
软件周期：软件产品从提出、实现、使用维护到停止使用退役的过程。
软件生命周期三个阶段:软件定义、软件开发、运行维护，主要活动阶段是：1、可行性研究与计划制定；2、需求分析；3、软件设计；4、软件实现；5、软件测试；6、运行和维护。
软件工程的目标和与原则：
目标：在给定成本、进度的前提下，开发出具有有效性、可靠性、可理解性、可维护性、可重用性、可适应性、可移植性、可追踪性和可互操作性且满足用户需求的产品。 基本目标：付出较低的开发成本；达到要求的软件功能；取得较好的软件性能；开发软件易于移植；需要较低的费用；能按时完成开发，及时交付使用。
基本原则：抽象、信息隐蔽、模块化、局部化、确定性、一致性、完备性和可验证性。
软件工程的理论和技术性研究的内容主要包括：软件开发技术和软件工程管理。 软件开发技术包括：软件开发方法学、开发过程、开发工具和软件工程环境。 软件工程管理包括：软件管理学、软件工程经济学、软件心理学等内容。 软件管理学包括人员组织、进度安排、质量保证、配置管理、项目计划等。 软件工程原则包括抽象、信息隐蔽、模块化、局部化、确定性、一致性、完备性和可验证性。
3.2 结构化分析方法
结构化方法的核心和基础是结构化程序设计理论。
需求分析方法有：1、结构化需求分析方法；2、面向对象的分析的方法。 从需求分析建立的模型的特性来分：静态分析和动态分析。
结构化分析方法的实质：着眼于数据流，自顶向下，逐层分解，建立系统的处理流程，以数据流图和数据字典为主要工具,建立系统的逻辑模型。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacityleading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \d revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\ and \hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \n a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \hree real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be 结构化分析的常用工具：1、数据流图；2、数据字典；3、判定树；4、判定表。 数据流图：描述数据处理过程的工具，是需求理解的逻辑模型的图形表示，它直接支持系统功能建模。
数据字典：对所有与系统相关的数据元素的一个有组织的列表，以及精确的、严格的定义，使得用户和系统分析员对于输入、输出、存储成分和中间计算结果有共同的理解。 判定树：从问题定义的文字描述中分清哪些是判定的条件，哪些是判定的结论，根据描述材料中的连接词找出判定条件之间的从属关系、并列关系、选择关系，根据它们构造判定树。
判定表：与判定树相似，当数据流图中的加工要依赖于多个逻辑条件的取值，即完成该加工的一组动作是由于某一组条件取值的组合而引发的，使用判定表描述比较适宜。 数据字典是结构化分析的核心。
软件需求规格说明书的特点：1、正确性；2、无岐义性；3、完整性；4、可验证性；5、一致性；6、可理解性；7、可追踪性。 3.3 结构化设计方法
软件设计的基本目标是用比较抽象概括的方式确定目标系统如何完成预定的任务，软件设计是确定系统的物理模型。
软件设计是开发阶段最重要的步骤，是将需求准确地转化为完整的软件产品或系统的唯一途径。
从技术观点来看，软件设计包括软件结构设计、数据设计、接口设计、过程设计。 （1）结构设计：定义软件系统各主要部件之间的关系。 （2）数据设计：将分析时创建的模型转化为数据结构的定义。
（3）接口设计：描述软件内部、软件和协作系统之间以及软件与人之间如何通信。 （4）过程设计：把系统结构部件转换成软件的过程描述。 从工程管理角度来看：概要设计和详细设计。
软件设计的一般过程：软件设计是一个迭代的过程；先进行高层次的结构设计；后进行低层次的过程设计；穿插进行数据设计和接口设计。
衡量软件模块独立性使用耦合性和内聚性两个定性的度量标准。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacityleading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \d revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \two learn a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \three strict three real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be 在程序结构中各模块的内聚性越强，则耦合性越弱。优秀软件应高内聚，低耦合。 软件概要设计的基本任务是：1、设计软件系统结构；2、数据结构及数据库设计；3、编写概要设计文档；4、概要设计文档评审。
模块用一个矩形表示，箭头表示模块间的调用关系。
在结构图中还可以用带注释的箭头表示模块调用过程中来回传递的信息。还可用带实心圆的箭头表示传递的是控制信息，空心圆箭心表示传递的是数据。 结构图的基本形式：基本形式、顺序形式、重复形式、选择形式。 结构图有四种模块类型：传入模块、传出模块、变换模块和协调模块。 典型的数据流类型有两种：变换型和事务型。
变换型系统结构图由输入、中心变换、输出三部分组成。
事务型数据流的特点是：接受一项事务，根据事务处理的特点和性质，选择分派一个适当的处理单元，然后给出结果。
详细设计：是为软件结构图中的每一个模块确定实现算法和局部数据结构，用某种选定的表达工具表示算法和数据结构的细节。
常见的过程设计工具有：图形工具（程序流程图）、表格工具（判定表）、语言工具（PDL）。
3.4 软件测试
软件测试定义：使用人工或自动手段来运行或测定某个系统的过程，其目的在于检验它是否满足规定的需求或是弄清预期结果与实际结果之间的差别。 软件测试的目的：发现错误而执行程序的过程。 软件测试方法：静态测试和动态测试。
（1）静态测试包括代码检查、静态结构分析、代码质量度量。不实际运行软件，主要通过人工进行。
（2）动态测试：是基本计算机的测试，主要包括白盒测试方法和黑盒测试方法。 ①白盒测试：在程序内部进行，主要用于完成软件内部操作的验证。主要方法有逻辑覆盖、基本基路径测试。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacityleading cadres ' awareness of right in place, study the party Constitution and party rules, series of speeches can make proper effect. Party cadres to \by example, to lead by example we must change our mind, recognizing that \learn the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary can enhance theory. With the \d revolution\he rise of rapid changes in our life are feeling, the Communists should adhere to the theory of confidence will continue to learn from the voices of the times, the times, in turn, will have new requirements for leading party cadres. \he most basic meaning of members all mastering the core theory and the most advanced weapons theory, complement the spirit of calcium. Secondly, the Communist Party Constitution Party rules, learning learning series important speech by General Secretary be able to firmly build the ideological foundation. Under the impact ofmultiple values, the \help cultivate independent judgment in numerous miscellaneous multiple concepts, so that the majority consensus of party members, the important magic weapon of the party with the resonance frequency. Finally, the Constitution of the Communist Party, party rules, learning learning series important speech can stand crowds, General Secretary position. Now, some grass-roots work in the \d way didn't work, hard way cannot, the new approach would not\nd cadres not understanding, does not meet. In fact, the mass \ng\ and \hind are likely to be party members and leading cadres themselves ignoring beliefs held, resulting in lack of persuasion and sense of identity. \d party cadres work, an important prerequisite for convincing the masses. Bacon said it well: \n can handle individual matters, but looking at the whole operation globally, but only man can do to knowledge. \ness of leading cadres of party members, as party members learn real responsibility\c \s, in parallel with the ground, do not forget to also answer the antenna, draw catches on meteorology, which sit between heaven and Earth which melds together the dreams of practicing Communist. Members cadres should in \n a do\post do contribution in all members in the carried out \Constitution Party rules, and learn series speech, do qualified members\ducation, this is following party of mass line education practice activities and \hree real\c education zhihou, deepening party education of and once important practice, is promoted \ct three real\c education from \pand, and from concentrated education to regular education extends of important initiatives. Vast numbers of party members and cadres in the course of two, should be ②黑盒测试：主要诊断功能不对或遗漏、界面错误、数据结构或外部数据库访问错误、性能错误、初始化和终止条件错，用于软件确认。主要方法有等价类划分法、边界值分析法、错误推测法、因果图等。
软件测试过程一般按4个步骤进行：单元测试、集成测试、验收测试（确认测试）和系统测试。
3.5 程序的调试
程序调试的任务是诊断和改正程序中的错误，主要在开发阶段进行。
程序调试的基本步骤：1、错误定位；2、修改设计和代码，以排除错误；3、进行回归测试，防止引进新的错误。
软件调试可分表静态调试和动态调试。静态调试主要是指通过人的思维来分析源程序代码和排错，是主要的设计手段，而动态调试是辅助静态调试。主要调试方法有：1、强行排错法；2、回溯法；3、原因排除法。
ased on their actual, striving to be \ng\ng theoretical study, belief and faith. Theory is an action guide, only theoretical knowledge in place, to unity, action can consciously. Constitution is the fundamental law of the party, party rules are party must follow the General rules. Studying and implementing the party Constitution Party rules and a series of important speech, General Secretary, is a guide to persisting and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a basic work of strengthening the party's construction, but also each and every Communist Party Member's obligations and solemn responsibility. These important content, for each party, must know would believe will do both. WeGeneral Secretary of the party Constitution, a series of remarks with, and hold, grasp the real \ng\sis, based on the Constitution speak to issue, in accordance with the series changed the problem. Second, disciplined in line, to become law-abidingmodel. Is not no rules. If there is no iron discipline, party members and cadres will become a mess, it will lose its fighting strength and vitality, purity and naturally much less advanced. By \and cadres to keep the \d lines\consciously practice the \hree Suns\ously act according to the Constitution, party rules, remains a political force, to perform party oath, a tree of its own image. Three is the loyal, dare to play and play to party members. Learning is the Foundation, is the key to development is the goal. \wo\s to let the majority of the play to the exemplary role of party members and cadres, party Constitution, party rules to examine. To use new criteria to guide our behavior. Through education, the ideal and conviction, keep in mind that membership, learn, learn, learn go play a vanguard and exemplary role, the courage to play as, and always maintain the pioneer, pioneering and enterprisingspirit, and constantly improve our own capacity and level of service, according to positions and make contributions. Hearts change, lead more strict \n in the know, know as Luke Skywalker\s, be qualified party members both a starting point and ending point. Party cadres only opinions, Foundation, Constitution Party rules, series to better address outside in shape, \ding by example, to lead by example to be qualified party members in the process of doing the deep and solid, higher and more stringent. Jobs with new skills. To be a qualified party member, most basic element is always advanced requirements themselves, using their power to push forward the cause of the party, the people and the nation. Is to the leading cadres of party members, first of all is based on the job, do the people in the heart. There is not a slogan, but aims to better serve the people, targeted efforts to increase the capacity
2011年全国计算机等级考试二级公共基础知识要2
