41.With the application of the comparative method,Persia,northern part of india were able to
reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved.
42.判断题syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than follows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription.
43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period. 44.Bilingual,pidin＆creole speakers contribute to formation of新语言变体 三、问答题
1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change
All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.
2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change
Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关 ⑴语音同化Sound assimilation
Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. ⑵规则简化Rule simplification
It’s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. ⑶内部借用Internal Borrowing
It’s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language’s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another. ⑷规则细化 Elaboration
It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
⑸社会因素Social triggers
⑹文化转移Cultural transmission
⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar.
A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 一、定义
1.言语社区Speech Community
It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. 2.社会方言Socialect
A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class. 3.语域Register
A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
4.标准语Standard Language
A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. 5.通用语Lingua Franca
A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.
6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者 A marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures,used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication. 7.双言现象Diglossia
A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation. 8.语言禁忌Linguistic taboo
An obscene,profane,or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite”society. 9.委婉语Euphemism
A word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect,or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression. 10.语码转换Code-Switching
It refers to a bilingual speaker foten uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。 11.语言变体Speech Variety
It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or gourp of speakers.the distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic,or a combination of linguistic features. 12.双语Bilingualism
It refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.
13.少数民族方言Ethnic Dialect
It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds. 14.使用域Domain
It refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that’s, a fairly clear functional diferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations,for example, the home Domain,Employment Domain. 15.语言计划Language Planning
It’s certain authorities,such as the government choosees a particular speech variety and spread the use of it,including its pronunciation and spelling systems,across regional boundaries. 16.发音Accent
If refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker’s regional or social background.
17.习语Idiolect=Personal dialect
A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another. 18.混合语Creoles
It’s originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.e.g. French-based creoles spoken in Haiti and Louisiana. 19.语言情景Language Situation
A linguistic situation in which two standard language are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. For example, in Canada, both english and french are official languages. 20.区域变体Regional Variation
Speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.e.g. American English and British English,ect.
21.语域变体Register Varieties=Situational Dialects
Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. 22.称呼术语Address Terms
An address term,or address form refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing.
23.俚语Slang
It’s a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary,typically of
arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.
24. 社会语言学Sociolinguistics
It’s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context. 二、知识点
1.Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional,ethnic and social groups. 2.In sociolinguistic studies,speakers are treated as memebers of social groups.
3.Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally.it may distinguish itself from rest of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation.
4.Considered a more neutral term,speech variety is sometimes used intead of standard langauge,vernacular language,dialect,pidgin,creole,ect.
5.语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体Regional dialects,sociolects or social dialects and registers. 6.Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.
7.Stylistic variation in a person’s speech,or writing,usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.
8.判断题the standard language is a superposed,socially prestigious dialect of language,it's the
langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media,and taught in educational institutions,including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language.
9.Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard,or vernacular languages.
10.The standard language of many countries,is also designated as the national or official language. 11.Lingua franca,an italian term literally meaning”frankish language”or”frankish tongue”.
12.The spoken language of modern china普通话embodies thepronunciation of the Beijing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, the vocabulary of modern colloquial chinese. 13.通用语Lingua Franca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别
⑴Pidgin is used for some practical purposes,such as trading,by groups of people who donot know each other’s langauge.Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as English,
⑵Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region,but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whoes business contact is very specialized.
14.The original Lingua Franca is believed to be an Indian-based pidgin used in Mediterranean ports 15.Most of the historical pidgins have become extinct.
16.The grammatical features such as case,tense,mood and voice are generally absent in pidgins,a pidgin typically lacks inflectional morphemes.
17.English-based pidgins are characterized by an absence of any complex grammatical morphology and a limited vocabulary.
18.Pidgins have strict rules for determining word orders to compensate for the lack of case endings on nouns.
19.Creoles最早来自长在南美洲的西班牙或葡萄牙裔。 20.Diglossia现象存在
⑴mostly in Arabic-speaking counties,
⑵Modern Greek,Swiss German and Haitian Creole.
⑶in Paraguay,spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety. 21.Bilingualism现象存在 ⑴Canada: English and French ⑵Finland: Finnish and Swedish
⑶Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch
22.Most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that’s a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains.
23.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced form of social isolation,such as racial discrimination or segregation.
24.The most widespread and most familiar ethnic variety of the english langauge is Black English. 25. 教育变体Education varieties Socialect 年龄变体Age varieties
Social Dialect 性别变体Gender varieties 社会方言 语域变体Register varieties 称谓术语Address terms 俚语 Slang
语言禁语Linguistic taboo
委婉 Euphemism from a Greek word
26.当五岁时,syntax is more standard,vocaulary is limited;十岁时,comparatively extensive vocabulary, structure of utterance doesnot differ from adults’speech.
27.词汇方面，年龄和时代的不同is more noticeable across three generation time span than two-generation time span.
28.Language reflects deep-rooted sexist social attitude toward females by the way neutral terms are interpreted.
29.It’s one way out of the communication dilema is language standardization known as language planning.
30.Standard language is a supposed,socially prestigious dialect of language. 31.One specific aspect of situational use of language is address term usage. 32.委婉语portly,full-figured代fat,inexpensive代cheap,indisposed代sick. 33.The english system of adress terms称谓方法
frist name：Esperanto last name : Du title+last name : Mr.Du title alone : Professor kin term : Dad
34.Christains的禁忌语”take the lord’s name in vain”,如hell,darn,
In England,”bloody”is a taboo word which originally referred to the blood of
Christ,some”respectable”people consider it a horrid word on a par with obscene or profane language and constantly in the mouths of uneducated speakers.
35.overt thought或subvocal speech（均可用下面定义）
Language and thought may be viewed as indpenedent circles overlapping in some parts,where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other, When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought as”subvocal speech”,and speech as”overt thought”. 三、问答题
1.特殊语域的区分how to distinguish a particular register from other registers? ⑴distinctive words
⑵using words or phrases in a particular way.
⑶speical grammatical constructions,such as scientific language,or legal language. 2.双语和双言的区分distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia.
Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community;in a diglossic community,two varieties of language are used for different situations,one
being more standard and higher,and used for more formal matters,the other less prestigious,used for colloquial situations.
双言现象是一个社区有两种标准语，双言社区中，两种语言变体被用作不同的情景。一个较为标准，处于高层次；另一个较为口语化，声望不高。 3. 黑人英语的特点
⑴ one of the most prominent phonological features of black english is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme.e.g.”desk”pronounced as/des/,“told” pronounced as /tou/;
音系特征，通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。
⑵one of the syntactic feature of black english is the absence of the copula,such as “they mine”,“you crazy”. Copula deletion as such occurs in some other english dialects,as well as in language like Arabic,Russian and chinese; 语法特征，经常缺失系词.
⑶the double negation construction with sentence like”I donot know nobody”. 语法特征，双重否定结构.
黑人英语的disinctive feature persis not for racial,but for social,educationa and economic reasons. 4.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面
List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other.
⑴Women tend to use more presigious forms,more polite and indirect language,and more specific color terms than their male counterparts.
⑵Women use more questions than declarative statements than males. 5.Why is productivity unique to langauge?
⑴The productivity of language is the property which enables its users to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances,including the novel utterances that they have never said heard before,
⑵The feature is unique to human langauge because most animal communication system appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. ⑶For example,bee dancing is used only to indicate nectar sources,which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the meaning.
6.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?
As a major component of grammar,syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.if,on the other hand,a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized,then native speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge.
Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker.
For any natural language,it's the set of rules that makes it possible for the speakers to
produce,comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native language
Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 一、定义
1.大脑皮层Cerebral Cortex
The outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.
接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知能力所存在的区域。 2.大脑侧化Brain Lateralization
The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.
语言学 重点概念
