1. The importance of learning about culture
1.Understanding foreign cultures is not only important for companies that operate in more than one global area and market internationally. It is just important for organizations at home that employ workers from more than one culture. 2.Understanding culture is also important for individuals who work in the global workplace. 3.the two important reasons for understanding culture are to learn how others make sense of（搞清.的意思） their environment, and to prevent mistakes and miscommunications.
2. 对待差异的态度（Responding to Different Cultures）：1.hostility (敌对) to difference 2.Curiosity about difference 3.Denying difference: Assumptions of superiority(优越); Ethnocertrism(民族中心论); Assumptions of universality 4.cooperating with difference
3. Minimize and prevent mistakes across cultures:1.Knowledge about one’s own culture, with this, knowledge about another culture is easier to learn.2.motivation, the drive to know and to use the knowledge.3.implementing（贯彻） knowledge, and behaving in a way that makes sense in the other culture, the one in which you want to do business.
4. culture is the coherent, , shared view of a group of people about life’s concerns, expressed in symbols and activities, that ranks what is important, furnishes（提供） attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior.
5.文化三特征:1Coherent:each culture, past or present, is coherent and complete within itself—an entire view of the universe2.Learned:culture is not something we born with3.The view of a group of people:is shared by a society.
三功能：1.Ranks what is important: teaches values or priorities.2.Furnishes Attitudes:attitudes are based on beliefs as well as on values.3 Dictates how to behave:behavior comes directly from attitudes about how significant something is –how it is valued. 6.Onstage culture)
7.Transaction culture:a transaction culture exists when interactants respond to cultural cues and modify their own behavior, creating-or co-creating—a new, temporary culture.(调整行为，适应对方or共同产生新行为) The amount of adjusted behavior depends on several factors:1 their level of knowledge about the other culture2 their willingness to experiment with new behaviors and attitudes 3their previous experience with successful intercultural interactions.
8.Culture shock: Culture shock is the sense of dislocation（转位） and the problems-psychological and even physical-that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture.
7.Transaction culture四个阶段:1. Experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria(欣快)2.Downturn as disillusionment(幻灭)and frustration(沮丧)arise3.adjustment4.integration(融合)
Euphoria: everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderful—no longer two weeks.
The second stage is a downturn as disillusionment and frustration arise. It is a feeling of not being in step with the members of the culture.
Adjustment.---as the sojourner（寄居者） learns more about the backstage culture and how the other culture works, he or she is able to cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture. the fourth stage, integration, occurs when a sojourner becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes, beliefs, and values, and the behaviors they generate.
Reverse culture shock: a similar adjustment period with its accompanying symptoms usually occurs when a sojourner returns
and
backstage:
Onstage
culture
is
the
behavior
we
display,it
is
easy
to
change.(interchangeable)Backstage culture is not so visible, it is difficult to change.(the essence of people’s
a9.Self-knowledge and understanding one’s own culture: Having a good understanding of one’s own culture is the best foundation for developing the ability to understand the communication behavior of people from other cultures. To achieve it---Mental representation: use mental categories that hold information items grouped together. 10.Mental Representation三个心里表征：prejudice（racism，ageism）;bias; discrimination
11. Prejudice generalizations that are based on limited knowledge, and that express an evaluation-usually negative-are prejudices.
Bias a bias for something is really nothing more than a preference. A bias against something is a negative attitude that ranks it low
Discrimination when biases or prejudices are acted on, the actor is showing discrimination. Discrimination is the act of sifting（过滤） out and selecting according to bias toward something or someone, and treating them differently.
12. Are cultures merging into one global culture? (文化定义；onstage， backstage)
13. Approaches to studying cultures:1.focus on a culture as a whole (emic studies一个文化不同层面, etic studies多种文化的共性)2 focus on individual(individuals may have any number of experiences, personal insights, personal goals, interests and expectations that are part of their idetities. 14. Emic studies
Studies that concentrate on one culture alone are called emic studies. Etic studies
Studies that look for factors that exist in more than one culture are called etic studies. Cultural generalizations
Studies about whole culture give us conclusions that are generalizations about the culture.
15. Cultural dimensions
Characteristics that could be the basis of comparisons from culture to culture is called cultural dimensions. 16. Stereotypes: Stereotyping means using oversimplified generalizations to understand people
1stereotypes are fixed, firm, inflexible mental categories2prototypes（原型） are the original concepts or models for something.3nor are all stereotypes bad, some are positive.
17. Self-identity: identity is as sth formed in part by the self and in part by group membership.
Self-concept can be formed in three general ways.①Social Psychology---experience.②Communication---core symbols, labels and norms.③Critical---social contexts (history, economics, polities, public discourse).
18. Self-construal(自我建构) is how we see ourselves in relation to others, with regard to feelings, thoughts, and behavior. In general, western culture have an independent self-construal, and eastern cultures have an interdependent（相互依赖的） self-construal.
19. Individualism values individual achievements, failures, and rights over the collective.
Collectivism values the group above the individual, and individuals have a responsibility to the group that supersedes（取代） individual needs or rights. 20. 文化维度
1.语境：a.高High-context cultures rely on the context, either the actual physical environment of communication or an internalized（内在化的） social context, or both, to convey a large part or even all of a message’s meaning. It is elliptical省略的，indirect，allusive（暗指的）.低:Low-context cultures entrust（委托） the meaning almost entire the words.it is explicit，direct, completely.
2.集体个人a.定义b集体-关系导向型，个人-结果导向型c. A characteristic of individualist culture is competitiveness; the corresponding value in collectivist cultures is cooperation.
Collectivism: relationships, old, permanent, public, high power distance (hierarchical), high-context culture, hide emotion, cooperation, harmony, dependence.
Individualism: results, youth, temporary, private, low power distance (horizontal), low-context culture, express Emotion, competitiveness, independence.
3.权力距离：Power distance is the degree to which less-powerful members of an organization tolerate unequal distribution of power, say, between managers and employees.
cultures with a smaller power distance are more horizontal, less hierarchical, and less authoritarian than are cultures with a high power distance.
Cultures with high power distance are inequality in power, less horizontal, more hierarchical, and more authoritarian.
21. High-context cultures: value relationships, teamwork, and long-term group membership. It rely on subjective information that is internalized (elliptical, indirect, allusive).
Low-context cultures: value independent decisions, activity that achieves goals, and individual accountability (explicit, direct, completely).
22. High culture refers to those cultural activities that are often the domain of the elite or well-to-do :ballet, sumphony, opera, great literature, and fine art. International; timeless; transcendent(超然的);
Low culture refers to the activities of the nonelite: music videos, game shows, professional wrestling, stock car racing, graffiti art, tv talk shows, and so on.
23. Where can information about cultures be found: 1. ask people who are members of the culture you want to understand. 2. Another good source may be someone who has spent considerable time in that culture but is not a native member of it.3. You can inquire(询问) into a culture by reading fiction from that culture.4. find out what people of a culture say about themselves. 5.Information about cultures also comes from studies by anthropologists who research cultures in the field, going to live among the members of the culture they want to understand.
24. Does Knowing Come from Concepts or Experience:1.knowing by secondhand information from a reliable source.2.in English-speaking or European cultures, abstract（提取） concepts philosophy arguments reaching back in history.3.knowing and being wise come with age 4.intuition(知觉),meditation（冥想）
25. Does Learning Come from Asking Questions or Mastering Received Wisdom:1.In the United States ,students who ask questions are rewarded.2. In many cultures in Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Southern Europe, learning means receiving and taking in what is given by teachers.
26. Does Knowledge Have Limits: the more you learn, the less you know. E.g. nonscientists who have faith in what science can achieve 27. How Do People Reason:1.Western cultures primarily（首先） use a cause-and-effect pattern of thinking.(Linear Logic); two opposite things cannot both be true. 2. Other cultures use other patterns. (Spiral Logic)a. In Asian: thinking is linkage; the opposites co-exist
28. Is Doing Important or Is Being Important:1.Doing: western cultures: activity-oriented, peace of life, crowded agendas（日程）. 2.Being: stillness, collectedness, serenity（平静）, silence(members of doing cultures view silence as waste, members of cultures that value being also often value silence).
29. Are Tasks Done Sequentially or Simultaneously：1. performing tasks one-by-one in a sequence 误解disorganized 2. performing multiple tasks simultaneously 误解；inflexible
30. Do Results or Relationships Take Priority1.Individulism:a.cause-and-effect,goals-oriented,to make progress（进步）. b. identify goals and work toward them c. Strategy to achievement. d. measure how close you have come 2.collectivism:a.relationship-oriented b.Value the relationship as a means to an end.
31. Is Uncertainty(不确定性) Avoided or Tolerated:1.uncertainty-averse:Doing：avoid uncertainty, strive to
protect themselves from the unknown 2.uncertaimty-tolerant:Being, tolerant uncertainty; be more open to accepting the unexcepted.
32. Is Luck an Essential Factor or an Irrelevance:1. Luck is irrelevant, in cultures that think in cause-and-effect patterns and that value results, planning—not luck—is the key to success. 2. In some cultures, luck or fate or destiny plays a large part, peoples role in achieving success has less effect than forces outside themselves. 33. Are Rules to Be Followed or Bent: 1. Followed: neat，predictable behavior, uncertain avoidance（逃避）. 2. Bent: flexibility to meet human needs; uncertain（无常的） tolerance.
34. Is Change Positive or Negative:1.The culture of the United States thinks of change as desirable and positive. New means better.2.Traditionally, agrarian cultures typically view change is negative. It means disruption（破坏） to the established patterns of life.
35. Is Death the End of Life or Part of Life: Some cultures view death as the end of life, a quenching（熄灭）of the light. It is dreaded（令人畏惧的）. Some cultures view death as another phase in life, a necessary step in the pattern of life. It is accepted.
简36. Relationship between Language and culture:1. culture and language are intertwined(缠绕的) and shape each other. It is impossible to separate the two.2.All languages have social questions and information questions.3. Language reflects the environment in which we live; language reflects cultural values; Sometimes different cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings.
37. 不重视语言的问题1.Acronyms(首字母缩略词 )2.implication of the language barrier. (字同音不同，异国异含义)
38. Selection of the right language: 1. Linguistic Considerations 2. Business Considerations 3. Political Considerations 4. The Appropriate Level of Fluency
39. Communication with nonnative speakers: Effective Face-to-Face Communication： a.enunciate b. speak slowly c. Avoid Slang and Colloquialisms（白话） d. Be Careful about Jokes. e. Be Sincere g. Be Culturally Sensitive h. Keep a Sense of Humor
40. Effective Written Communication a. Use Plenty of White Space b. Use Correct Titles and Spellings of Names c.Understand Patterns of Organization d. Use Headings e. Be Careful with Numbers f. Be Careful with Dates g. Avoid Abbreviations h. Follow the Conventions of Written Communication 41.技术对沟通的影响：1.telephone；2.skype 3. Email,texting and twitters
42. 非语言交流影响因素：1. Cultural background 2.socialeconomic background 3. Education4. Gender 5. Age 6. Personal preferences and idiosyncrasies（特质）
43. Paralanguage 1.vocal qualifiers: The term vocal qualifiers refers to volume（音量）, pitch（音高）, and the overall intonation（声调） or melody（旋律） of the spoken word.
2.vocalization: All cultures use nonword noises such as ahem, um, er, sucking in one’s breath, and clicking one’s tongue.
44. Nonverbal business conventions：1.eye contact （a sign of honesty/privacy）2. Facial expression（不同文化频率frequency强度intensity不同a. smiling (indicate joy, embarrassment or avoid embarrassment.)b.showing anger(milder form-frowning; hide anger) 3.gesture(head/arm movements; posture) 4.timing in spoken exchanges(an environment that emphasizes equality; seniority and hierarchy;the role of men.)5.touching(people from low-context cultures tend to be feel crowded by people from high-context cultures, and people from high-context cultures feel left out and rejected by people from low-context cultures. 6. The language of space (private/ office/ public space)7.Appearance（a.不同国家穿衣风格不同b.in most cultures, dress also identifies a person as belonging to a specific group and having a certain status.）8.Silence:(高语境文化更倾向于使用沉默，低语境：silence often is interpreted as the absence of communication)
45. Signals of respect: it can be different from culture to culture, and it may take some time to learn what is
excepted behavior. Positions of authority Dress as a symbol of authority
46权威的象征：1.tone and behavior2.Language(indicator)3.Family and societal structures(indicator)
Assertiveness(魄力) v.s Harmony.:1.standing up for one’s own rights(individualism,low power distance)2.Preserving harmony(collectivism,high power distance) 47绩效的认可及奖励：1.monetary recognition 2.nonmonetary rewards
48自我认同1.Self-identity—A Social Psychology Approach：（experiences）we can think about self-concept is that we build up our sense of self from childhood, based on experiences we have had that contribute to our sense of self. 2.Self-identity—A Communication Approach（communication）：Identities（身份） are communicated in core symbols, labels, and norms.
49.Self-identity—A Critical Approach(social context): The critical approach to self-identity uses history, economics, politics, and public discourse.
50 Age: Is Seniority Valued or Discounted: a. In cultures that value age, the older a businessperson is the more credibility he or she has. b. in youth-oriented cultures being young seems to mean having more choices, more power, more energy, and more freedom.
51 Gender: Are Women Equals or Subordinates: a.In traditional cultures, the two facts are related. Child-bearing and child-nurturing are the main roles of women. b. management role
a52 Social organization :1 Group Membership: Temporary or Permanent: a. Individuals in the United States are members of many groups simultaneously; group membership is impermanent b. In other cultures, the responsibilities of membership come before rights; group membership is permanent, belonging starts with the family.
53 three functions of group communication:1.Give and Save Face 2. Display Emotion 3. about Shame or Guilt(a.In individualistic cultures, where individual responsibility, results, and privacy are valued, guilt is a potent way for a culture to enforce（实施） rules of behavior. b. In collectivist cultures where group membership, relationships, and public knowledge of one’s life are important, shame enforces the rules of conduct.)
54 form: Important or Untrustworthy（靠不住的）: Behaving according to form means behaving correctly. 55 Personal Matters: Private or Public: a. In Europe,as in Britain, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, a person’s work life is kept fairly separate from private life.b. cultures that emphasize relationships, view group member-ship as long term, and value harmony have a blurred （模糊不清的）distinction（区别） between what is private and what is public (or at least what is “group”).
56 Social Organizational Patterns: Horizontal or Hierarchical:1.monarchies(君主制): at one extremeare rigid（严格的） vertical levels in society,2.Democracies: movement between them is very limited; at the other extreme, society is horizontal and operates with few levels.
57 Approach to Authority: Direct or Mediated:1. in many cultures, the approach to authority is indirect.2. In New Zealand, in which horizontality has priority, the approach to authority is direct.
58 Communicating about problems: 1.in low-context cultures: direct 2.in high-context culture: indirect, put a high priority on keeping harmony, preventing anyone important from losing face, and nurturing relationship. 59 Saying no:1.it is done with delay and indirectness in low-context cultures, the rationale（基本原理） is to explain why first. 2.it is more difficult for high-context culture, which is often saying yes.
60 Gift giving; 1. in many cultures, it is appropriate to take small gifts when one is invited to enjoy hospitality（好客）. 2.the way people from different cultures express appreciation for hospitality varies. 3.the timing of greetings is also important
61 Managing conflicts: conflict is a clash between people or between ideas that engages（吸引） people in a struggle against each other. 1. In individualist culture (result-oriented) people are responsible for the
(完整版)英文跨文化沟通复习资料
